=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1230/paper-01
|storemode=property
|title=Ontology Development for Intelligent Information Logistics in Transportation
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1230/paper-01.pdf
|volume=Vol-1230
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/bir/KocLS14
}}
==Ontology Development for Intelligent Information Logistics in Transportation==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1230/paper-01.pdf
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
Ontology Development for Intelligent Information
Logistics in Transportation
Hasan Koç, Birger Lantow, and Kurt Sandkuhl
The University of Rostock, Institute of Computer Science,
Chair Business Information Systems
Albert-Einstein-Str. 22, 18057 Rostock, Germany
[hasan.koc, birger.lantow, kurt.sandkuhl] @uni-rostock.de
Abstract. Technological innovations in the area of wireless sensor networks,
which allow for features like spontaneous networking and self-organization, are
enablers for new kinds of IT services in many application domains. In order to
fully exploit the potential of these technologies various industries show examples
for innovations on the level of service management as well as with respect to the
underlying business models. Based on a case study from transportation, this
paper shows how ontologies can be used as the basis for new types of IT
services. The focus during ontology development in this context is on creating an
adaptable knowledge base for different kinds of services and to prepare for self-
organization of the overall solution. The contributions of this paper are (a) an
ontology for the field of information logistics services in transportation, (b)
experiences from the development process based on a real-world scenario and,
(c) potentials and limits of the ontology to accommodate features required for
self-organization.
Keywords: Information Logistics, Ontology Engineering, Transportation
Service, Self-Organization, Situation Awareness.
1 Introduction
During the last years, technological innovations in the area of wireless sensor
networks have established themselves as enablers for new kinds of IT services in many
application domains. In order to fully exploit the potential of these technologies, which
offer features such as self-organization and spontaneous networking, various industries
show examples for innovations on the level of service management as well as with
respect to new kinds of products. Examples can be found in the area of functional
products, wind turbines or factory automation. This paper investigates new kinds of
services and the required knowledge base for an example of intelligent information
logistics services in transportation and logistics. Information logistics aims at
improving information flow in organizations by means of information systems.
The logistics industry has changed under the impact of the internal European market
and of an increasing globalization into a high-technology industry, making intensive
use of modern information technology. At the same time, the industrial demand for
more dynamic logistics solutions with adequate IT support is increasing. Many
industries experienced a shift in sourcing and logistics strategies from long-term
2
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
customer-supplier relationships to more networked strategies adapted for global
markets, like value networks, flexible supply networks, cluster-based approaches up to
on-demand cloud constellations.
Within the logistics industry, the transportation area is considered as promising
application field for new types of intelligent information logistics services, since
• Advances in wireless sensor networks and sensor/actuator technologies allow for
new ways of tagging and tracking goods and vehicles,
• Many different actors with heterogeneous information systems offer possibilities
for automating or transforming processes by means of system integration,
• Due to growing requirements from environmental or security regulations, and an
increasing awareness of sustainability issues on the customer side, the market for
applications creating more ecological and economic services is developing fast.
Based on a case study from transportation, this paper shows how ontologies can be
used as the basis for new types of IT services. The focus during ontology development
in this context is on creating an adaptable knowledge base for different kinds of
services and to prepare for self-organization of the overall solution. The contributions
of this paper are (a) an ontology for the field of information logistics services in
transportation, (b) experiences from the development process based on a real-world
scenario and, (c) potentials and limits of the ontology to accommodate features
required for self-organization.
The remaining part of the paper is structured as follows: section 2 summarizes the
background for the work from the areas of ontology engineering and information
logistics. Section 3 introduces the industrial case study including requirements to the
knowledge base. Section 4 describes the ontology engineering process performed and
presents the actual ontology. Section 5 investigates potentials and limits of the
ontology regarding self-organization. Section 6 summarizes the work and draws
conclusions.
2 Background
As a background for the work presented in this paper, we will describe relevant
work in the areas of ontology engineering, information logistics and self-organization.
2.1 Ontology Engineering
Ontologies became popular in the 90’s mostly in the Knowledge Engineering
Community. There have been several definitions for what an ontology is. For the
purposes of this article [2] provides the most suited definition “An ontology is a formal
explicit specification of a shared conceptualization.”
There has been a series of approaches proposed for developing ontologies. Despite
the fact that the methodologies for ontology development have been subject to research
during a number of years1, there is no one ’correct’ way or methodology for developing
1 Detailed information about the ontology development methodologies can be found in [4,5]
3
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
ontologies [3, 4] Noy and McGuinness proposed in [4] an iterative ontology
development process consisting of seven steps. In this work the Ontology for Trailer
Surveillance (OTS) is being developed following their methodology as well as
extending it by two more steps (create rules, create defined classes).
The approach of Noy and McGuinness consists of the following steps:
• Determine the domain and scope of the ontology: This is the starting point of
ontology development. Several questions should be answered, i.e. "What is
the domain that the ontology will cover?" or "for what we are going to use the
ontology?" These questions should be populated and formed more specifically
regarding the domain of interest in order to put together a list of "competency
questions".
• Consider reusing existing ontologies: For a particular domain and task it
should be investigated, whether the existing ontologies could be reused and if
yes, how.
• Enumerate important terms in the ontology: A list of important terms should
be written down.
• Define the classes and the class hierarchy: These terms should be organized as
classes into a hierarchical taxonomy. A top-down, bottom-up or a
combination approach could be used for that purpose.
• Define the properties of classes: The internal structure of concepts should be
specified.
• Define the facets of the slots: Based on the OWL language model this step
corresponds with the specification of object properties and their
characteristics.
• Create instances: The last step is creating individual instances of classes in the
hierarchy and adding object property assertions.
This approach is extended applying two more steps. After creating instances, the
rules for more powerful reasoning need to be formulated, which also provide a
consistent knowledge base. Next, the concept of defined classes is applied, i.e. if an
individual fulfils the necessary and sufficient conditions given by the defined class, then
it is inferred to be a member of this class.
2.2 Information Logistics
The research field information logistics was established in the late 1990s and
defined in [14]. The main objective is optimized information provision and information
flow, based on information content, time of delivery, location, presentation and quality.
The information logistics field focuses on improving the information flow by applying
logistic principles to information supply. During the last decade, many IT applications
have been developed implementing the objective of information logistics. Some of the
applications are services providing bad weather warnings, traffic information or
personalized news, and solutions for businesses in different domains like WIND
service (weather information on demand), Smart-Wear (location-based information
supply for mobile users) [14]. An essential concept in information logistics is the
“information demand” which is defined by [10] as “…the constantly changing need for
4
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
current, accurate, reliable, and integrated information to support (business) activities,
whenever and where ever it is needed.”
This definition implies a number of aspects that must be considered while analysing
information demand and when constructing information logistics services. Information
demand should change as the task, roles and responsibilities, to which information
demand is connected, change. The information should be relevant, current, accurate
and reliable; otherwise it will contribute to information overflow. The information
demand should be integrated with the business activities, as it is necessary to have a
solid knowledge about the context in order to be aware of any changes of information
demand that might happen. Whenever and where ever emphasize the importance of
time and location while analysing the information demand [10]. A specific method for
information demand analysis was developed and evaluated in a number of industrial
projects [11].
2.3 Self-Organizing Systems
“A self-organizing system consist of a set of entities that obtains an emerging
global system behaviour via local interaction without centralized control.” [7] Besides
emergence and decentralization, autonomy, adaptivity, self-maintenance, and
optimization are common features of self-organizing systems [16].
Furthermore, self-organising systems are characterised by their capacity to
spontaneously produce a new organisation in case of environmental changes [18].
These systems are particularly robust, because they adapt to changes, and are able to
ensure their own survivability [18].
Research efforts in this area include: The EC FP6 Ambient Networks project
offered a complete, coherent wireless network solution based on dynamic composition
of networks. It provides access to any network through instant inter-network
agreements. The EC FP7 project SENSEI aimed at integrating the physical with the
digital world of the network of the future. It produced: (i) a scalable architectural
framework; (ii) an open service interface and corresponding semantic specification;
(iii) network island solutions consisting of a set of cross-optimised and energy aware
protocol stacks; (iv) pan European test platform enabling large scale experimental
evaluation of the SENSEI results. Goal of EC FP7 project SOCRATES (Self-
optimisation and self-configuration in wireless networks) was the automation of
wireless access network planning and optimization by the application of self-
organisation methods.
The general components of a self-organizing system are (adapted from [18]):
• The environment in which the autonomous, individual entities (the agents) evolve
• Agents, which might be among others software agents, robots or sensor nodes
• Self-organisation mechanisms (rules) that describe the behaviour of the agents for
organization management and task-fulfilment
• Artifacts that contain information provided by agents and environment. They can
be used as a means of communication for management and task fulfilment
purposes.
5
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
Negotiation models are key mechanisms of self-organising networks. The
following general negotiation models are examples [6]:
• Different forms of spontaneous self-aggregation, to enable multiple distributed
agents to collectively and adaptively provide a distributed service, e.g. a holonic
(self-similar) aggregation.
• Self-management as a way to enforce control in the ecology of agents if needed
(e.g. assignment of “manager rights” to an agent.
• Situation awareness – organization of situational information and their access by
agents, promoting more informed adaptation choices by them and advanced forms
of stigmergic (indirect) interactions.
One of the early activities in this field was the DARPA project Self-Organizing
Sensor Networks which addressed networks of self-aware, self-reconfigurable and
autonomous sensor nodes. This project implemented a number of functionality which
can be used as guidelines for what mechanisms have to be implemented for self-
organization: The nodes involved in a self-organizing systems have to be capable to
• spontaneously create an impromptu network,
• assemble the network themselves,
• dynamically adapt to device failure and degradation,
• manage movement of sensor nodes/agents, and
• react to changes in task and network requirements.
The implementation of these capabilities can be realized by negotiation models like
self-aggregation, self-management, and situation-awareness.
3 Case Study from Transportation
The case study used in this paper is based on an industrial research and development
project from transport and logistics industries. One of the world’s largest truck
manufacturers is developing new transport related services based on an integration and
orchestrated interpretation of different information sources, like on-board vehicle
information systems, traffic control systems and fleet management systems. Our case
aims at using wireless sensor networks in trailers for innovative applications. In
comparison to the well-equipped trucks, most of today’s trailers are poorly equipped
with electronic systems, although they “carry” the actual goods. Trailers are during a
transportation assignment often switched between trucks and logistics operators, and
they outnumber the number of trucks by far.
The wireless sensor network is installed in the position lights of a trailer. Each
position light carries a sensor node able to communicate by ZigBee2 with neighboring
nodes and equipped with a radar sensor. The radar sensor could be used for protecting
the goods loaded on the trailer against theft, offering additional assistance to the driver
of the truck (e.g. lane control, blind spot support) or for surveillance of the goods (e.g.
sealing different compartments of the trailer). The wireless sensor network in the
position lights is controlled by a gateway in the trailer, which communicates with the
2 http://www.zigbee.org
6
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
back-office of the owner of the trailer or the owner of the goods, and – for some
application cases – with the on-board computer of the truck.
Several use cases were defined within the project, which aim at specifying the
planned information logistics services for the customer. One of these use cases is a
service which contributes to protecting the goods loaded on the trailer against theft.
More precisely, the main doors of the trailer are equipped with an additional
“electronic” seal. An analysis of current work procedure in the case study showed that
when transporting expensive goods, the sending unit of a hauler mounts a physical seal
on the trailer’s doors and takes a picture of this seal. At the destination, the receiving
unit checks whether the seal is broken and compares it with the picture taken at the
destination. If the seal is unharmed and looks the same as in the picture, checking the
received goods on the trailer can be done less intensely. However, the sealing and
picture transmission process as such is time consuming and error prone, which would
be improved with an electronic seal. A modified work procedure with electronic seal
would look as follows:
• The electronic seal protection service is booked by the trailer owner.
• The goods are loaded on the trailer, doors closed, and seal device is activated,
which also activate the protection mode for the trailer.
• At arrival, the responsible person (e.g. a warehouse manager or the driver) sends
the “unlock” request.
• If the authorization process for the responsible person is successful (i.e. identity is
proven and trailer owner has authorized the person) and the person is in the close
vicinity of the trailer, the electronic seal is de-activated.
In case the door is opened with the seal activated, a notification is sent to the back-
office operator who decides on alarming the police or taking other counter-measures.
In order to implement the above services, various kinds of knowledge need to be
available and combined, i.e. part of a knowledge base underlying the services. Within
the knowledge base observations acquired through the different sensors in the trailer
have to be combined with information coming from other sources, like an
authentication service for the driver’s identity. Furthermore, we have to detect
potential critical events, according to what is specified by the IT services. Thus,
“context” includes both all characteristics needed to determine the situation of a trailer
and the characteristics of the actual information logistics service to be supported. For
this purpose, the knowledge base had to accommodate basic transportation domain
knowledge, the sensors and their observation possibilities, and a conceptual model for
situations.
In addition to the above IT service, many more new services are under preparation.
Examples are an electronic fence implemented by radar sensors in the side-marking
lights against theft of goods on the trailer, or temperature supervision of cooled cargo
on the trailer implemented by temperature sensors spontaneously connecting to the
wireless sensor network.
7
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
4 Development of the Ontology for Trailer Surveillance (OTS)
In this section we describe the development of a knowledge base represented by the
Ontology for Trailer Surveillance (OTS) for the transportation use case presented in
section 3. The development process follows and extends the methodology described in
[3]. In this section, we first motivate the basics of the OTS and then construct the
knowledge base that provides the required features.
4.1. Basics of the Ontology for Trailer Surveillance
As discussed in section 3, the ontology needs to be able to capture knowledge about
sensors, situations and the application domain of transportation as such. In this section
different information models in sensors, observations, situation (awareness) and time
domains are introduced. Utilizing the reusable components of these models the domain
model should be able to conceptualize the knowledge base for offering services in
transportation sector. Moreover it should serve a basis to prepare a non-exhaustive list
of important terms for the particular domains, which could be used as classes and/ or
properties.
OTS adopts the Semantic Web Rules Language (SWRL) for modelling rules.
SWRL has been proposed as the basic rules language for the Semantic Web Stack and
is based on a combination of the OWL DL and OWL Lite with the Rule Markup
Language (Rule ML)3. It provides the ability to add Horn-like rules expressed in terms
of OWL concepts in order to establish more powerful deductive reasoning capabilities
[6], [8]. Observing the relations between objects or entities, situation awareness (or
assessment) aims at providing a projection based on situations, which describe a state
of affairs adhering to a partial view of the world [30]. The three levels of the situation
awareness according to [12] are i) perception of elements ii) comprehending the
meaning of these elements iii) using the understanding to implicate future states. [9]
emphasizes the notion of relationship; the relations between subjects constellate
various situations. Whether these subjects are objects from the real world or abstract
information objects that are perceived through observations and stored as "facts" in the
knowledge base remains undecided. A subject is aware, if he is capable of observing
some objects and making inferences from these observations.
Another part of the domain model covers the sensors in the trailers and the control
hierarchy, which at least consists of the sensor nodes, the trailer gateways, the trailer
fleet of a customer of a service type, and the set of all customers of a IT service type.
For the trailer-WSN related part of the domain model, The Open Geospatial
Consortium (OGC)4 sensor web enablement, in particular the observations and
measurements (O&M) [1], was taken as starting point. This standard describes
conceptual models and defines XML schemas for observations.
The OpenGIS Sensor Model Language Encoding Standard (SensorML) specifies
models and XML encoding that provides a framework within the characteristics of
sensors. Due to its criticism for complexity, SensorML is not directly adapted in this
3 http://www.w3.org/Submission/SWRL/#1 (August 2012)
4 http://www.opengeospatial.org/
8
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
work. Instead the Starfish Fungus Language (*FL) is utilized, which supports every
type of sensor and allows expressing all details about the sensing procedures [5].
Moreover for the modeling of the various sensor types in future the compatibility with
SensorML is assured. Last but not least, Sensor Observation Service (SOS) standard
defines a Web Service interface which allows querying observations, sensor metadata
as well as representations of observed features using three main operations;
GetCapabilities, DescribeSensor and GetObservation. In this respective, concepts from
an observation ontology, Semantic Sensor Observation Service (SemSOS or O&M-
OWL), are adopted, which takes the advantages of representing the sensor data in
OWL and enabling reasoning over sensor observations [15]. The knowledge base,
provided by an ontology, can be accessed through a standard SOS request (e.g.
GetRequest), making the sensor data useful for a wide range of applications, thus
leading to improved interoperability.
OWL allows data values to be typed as XML Schema dates, times or durations and
provides minimal support for modelling the temporal relations as well as temporal
information. As a result, ontologies often cannot fully express the temporal knowledge
needed by applications, forcing users and developers to develop ad hoc solutions. For
this purposes the OTS adopts Allen’s time intervals algebra that has six basic time
intervals constituting a sum of 13 temporal interval relations [17]. On top of this, the
valid-time temporal model is applied [16], which attempts at a solution for
representing the time information by providing a lightweight temporal model. The
selected approaches as well as their application domains are illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1: Modelling domains and selected approaches
Domain Selected Approaches
Modelling Rules SWRL
Modelling Time Allen´s Model
Information Valid Time Model
Modelling Sensors and OGC Standards
Observations SemSOS
Modelling Situations Situation Awareness
4.2. The Ontology for Trailer Surveillance
The OTS should cover the transportation domain with a primary focus on the
surveillance of the transportation instances at ground (haulage), i.e. trucks and trailers.
The main reason behind using the OTS is offering flexible customer services to protect
the transport instances from thievery as described in section 3. In order to specify the
requirements on the ontology, we put together a list of competency questions. These
are systematized in accordance with their abstraction level (i.e. domain-level or
application-level questions) and corresponding architecture (i.e. Observation, Sensor,
Event, Situation). Some of those questions are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Competency questions and their classification
Architecture Abstraction Level
Domain-Level Application Level
Observation Which observations are Give me the observations
9
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
propagated from a feature of which are assessed from a
interest? particular trailer instance
Sensor Which sensors provide the Which sensor instances
observations? provide information about
the velocity?
Event Which events are captured from Is trailer 1 in a safe location?
the features?
Situation What is the temporal property When was the e-seal of
of a particular situation? trailer1 broken?
Important Terms and Classes in OTS. The terms utilized in the knowledge base
should semantically be explained in order to create a basic terminology and a common
understanding among the users as well. Based on the model presented in [18], we
define an event as concepts, which are caused by observations and aggregated by
situations. Events are not moments but they capture the times of the relevant
occurrences, such as velocity of a trailer or the distance between the rear doors. Hence
one event can occur during another event, which provides useful information for the
inference of the instance´s situation. Signal assessments are saved as observations in
the knowledge base and they all have some values (results). Feature is representation
or the abstraction of the real world entity that exists in physical reality [19] .
Phenomenon is a physical property that can be observed and measured, such as
temperature, gravity [21] . Observation, act of observing a property, produces a result,
whose value is an estimate of a property of the observation target or feature of interest
[20] . A sensor is a source producing a value within a value space Finally, a situation is
a constellation of events over a period of time that affects future system behaviour
[18]. Adopting the approach of Baumgartner et al. the situations are described in terms
of rule-based situation types comprising objects and the relations between them [13].
These concepts are represented as classes in the ontology, which are depicted in Fig. 1.
The situation classes illustrated in Fig. 1 define and implement the customer services.
Hence they are the most important classes in the OTS. It has six defined subclasses -
four classes are in conformity with the four services that are currently offered to the
customers. As an example ESealBroken class represents the implementation of the
"Electronic Seal" customer service. In order to assess relevant situations for this
service, sensory information has to be aggregated from the individuals of the
NonSafeLocationEvent, DistanceEvent and VelocityEvent. The
instances of the latter two classes need to occur during some ValidTimeEvent. To
name the other important classes, the Entity class represents temporal information
based on [16], the Feature class represents the abstraction of real world entities like
trailers and platforms, which deploy instances of Sensor class.
Properties of the Classes in OTS. The classes alone cannot provide enough
information in an ontology, the properties of these classes are also necessary to
constitute the OTS. Due to simplicity and place reasons, only some of the properties
should be introduced in this section. The object properties “before, during,
equal, meets” are applied for the representation of the time relation following
Allen´s temporal intervals. The object property deliversIn is used to capture
information about the trailers that deliver the goods in particular cities, which are
entered manually by the trailer or goods owner to the information base. If a trailer is
charged with a delivery in a specific city, then this city is the member of the
10
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
SafeCity class. The metadata information of the sensors are represented via
hasMetaData object property. The sensory information is interpreted as an
observation and this has some values, which are captured through hasResult object
property. Unlike object properties, which link individuals to individuals, data type
properties describe relationships between individuals and data values. To represent the
time information in intervals, hasBegin-hasFinish data type properties are
utilized. The data type property hasEnvironment has the value true, if an object is
in the vicinity of the trailer.
Rules in OTS. The rules are mainly created to provide consistent time representation
such as “if an event meets a second event, which in turn meets a third event, then the
first event is before the third event”. There are also rules to contribute to the
Fig. 1. Class hierarchy in OTS
11
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
consistency of the ontology; for instance, the following simple rule assures that if a
situation aggregates an event, then the feature that the event deals with has to be in this
situation, since events are captured from features.
The defined classes are classes that have necessary and sufficient conditions. As the
name implies such classes have a definition. Classes, all of whose individuals satisfy
this definition, can be inferred to be subclasses of a defined class. In the OTS, the
concept of the defined classes is used for the subclasses of the Event and
Situation. As an example, if the following three conditions are fulfilled, then an
individual of the DistanceEvent class is found, i.e. an event happens which could
lead to reasoning activities that trigger relevant situations and related to some services:
(i) The individual is a member of the event class that are caused by at least one
observation and (ii) if such an observation exists, then it must have at least one result
and (iii) if such a result exists, then it must have at least one hasDistance data type
property with an integer value greater than “1”.
These conditions (i) and (ii) are named as “pattern conditions” since most of the
defined classes reuse, extend and build upon them. For instance an individual of the
ESealBroken class is found if the following conditions are fulfilled5: (i) The
individual is a member of the situation class that aggregates at least one individual of
the NonSafeLocationEvent (ii) The individual is a member of the situation class
that aggregates at least one individual of the DistanceEvent and (iii) if such an
individual of the DistanceEvent class exists, then it must happen during at least
one ValidTimeEvent (iv) the individual is a member of the situation class that
aggregates at least one individual of the VelocityEvent and (v) if such an
individual of the VelocityEvent class exists, then it must happen during at least
one ValidTimeEvent.
5 Potentials and Limits of OTS for Self-Organization
The development of OTS primarily followed the requirements indicated by the
industrial case in section 3 which did not explicitly include the feature of self-
organization. However, the initial experiences with the architecture and new plans to
implement adaptability in business models [18] indicated that the ability to adapt to
changes in the environment would be of much use. Thus, we will discuss in this
section which options exist to use OTS in a self-organizing context.
First, we have to be aware that OTS is based on a multi-tier or multilayer
information system architecture. On the technical layer there is a network of wireless
sensors that provides basic communication and processing functionality based on self-
organisation. This layer is not covered by the OTS and thus it is not reflected which
properties the sensor has to have to be an agent. It describes the domain of interest,
hence necessary concepts of trailer surveillance. Application logic is based on OTS or
in the case of rules even specified in OTS. However, the application tier itself is a
multi-layer construct (layers: Sensor Data – Event –Situation – Business Service) and
5 The event classes have to fulfill „pattern conditions“ already.
12
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
is subject to self-organization. Situations for example can be recognized in a
decentralized manner by the cooperation of a trailer’s sensor nodes.
The discussion will be based on both i) the elements of self-organizing systems:
environment, agents, mechanisms, artefacts; and ii) the functionalities of self-
organizing systems: capability to spontaneously create impromptu network, assemble
the network themselves, dynamically adapt to device failure and degradation, manage
movement of sensor nodes, and react to changes in task and network requirements (see
section 2.3 for reference).
5.1. Coverage of Elements of Self-organizing Systems
An ontology that provides complete support for self-organization needs to provide
concepts for all elements of such a system. In the following, we discuss to what extend
OTS covers each of the system elements.
There is a broad range of interpretations what has to be considered as the
environment of a self-organizing system. It starts from execution environment of a
software and ranges to physical phenomena in the proximity of an agent or sensor
respectively. OTS covers both ends of that scale. The class SensorGrounding
represents a certain sensor platform in the sense of used hardware and software. The
class Feature and its subclasses represent physical objects in the environment. The
PhysicalProperty class describes the data that is covered from the environment
by Observations. The assignment to particular features is done by the
hasProperty relation.
The agents of the self-organizing system are represented by the class Sensor.
However, there is no possibility to describe the functionality of the agents besides
sensing data. Hence, the only task of an agent would be providing Observations.
The task of data processing is not covered and cannot be self-organized based on OTS.
Mechanisms in OTS are defined as SWRL-rules. These describe how
Observations have to be aggregated to complex interpretations of the environment.
This includes the required PhysicalProperties of Features and their
aggregation to Events and Situations. Again, the organization of the task of rule
interpretation (data processing) is not covered.
Artefacts in the sense of the definition in section 2.3 are represented by instances in
the OTS knowledge base.
As a conclusion regarding the coverage of elements of self-organizing system by
OTS, it can be said that all elements are addressed. However, there are no mechanisms
for the organization of data processing. Regarding the discussion at the beginning of
this section, this is done on the technical layer. But this task should be performed
situation based and content aware. This means, there must be an interface in order to
link data interpretation rules and discovered situations to the mechanisms of data
processing management, e.g. task assignment.
13
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
5.2. Coverage of Necessary Self-organization Capabilities
All mentioned capabilities are necessary for the Technical Layer in order to provide
basic communication and processing functionality. However, we focus on the layers
that are covered by OTS and discuss, how the ontology provides the knowledge needed
for capability provision.
The capability to spontaneously create impromptu network is related to the basic
task of providing communication functionality. Regarding the multi-layer architecture,
this functionality can be clearly assigned to the Technical Layer. OTS layers are not
relevant.
The capability to assemble the network refers to mechanisms for the determination
of necessary network components (agents) in order to fulfil a certain task. The
identification of the right Agents for the determination of Events and Situations
has to be done in the layers covered by OTS. The OTS rules describe which data from
which Sensors (agents) is necessary in order to do that. Thus, OTS generally
contains the necessary knowledge for the provision of the capability to assemble the
network. However, the task of data processing is not covered, as discussed in the
previous section.
The capability to dynamically adapt to device failure and degradation includes
mechanisms for the avoidance of inconsistent states or incorrect data respectively and
for the spontaneous construction for workarounds or fall-backs. Regarding OTS, the
rules guarantee that Events and Situations are only determined if the complete
set of necessary valid data is available. Thus, in the case of a sensor failure the
Situations that depend on the respective sensor data cannot be recognized
accidently. However, functionality is limited in these cases. OTS does not contain rules
that apply for the case of failures and provide for example fall-backs. Such rules cannot
simply be added because there is no rule for the non-existence (failure) of an instance.
Thus, the addition of failure into the OTS concepts is a prerequisite in order to provide
appropriate adaption capabilities to failure and degradation.
The capability to manage the movement of sensor nodes / agents implies the
reassignment of tasks depending on the current positions of the agents. OTS covers the
positions of the Sensors relative to objects of the environment, e.g. Platform and
Trailer. The rules are defined based on these positions. Thus, reassignment of the
sensing tasks on position changes is assured.
The capability to react to changes in task and network requirements needs
mechanisms for the reassignment of agents’ tasks depending on tasks that have to be
fulfilled by the system. In OTS, the systems’ tasks are described by rules and by
instances of the CustomerService class. However, OTS performs all specified
tasks for all trailer instances in its current state. There aren’t concepts for a more
detailed task assignment. Thus, reaction on task changes is only possible on a global
level controlled be the (non-)existence of rules and instances of the
CustomerService class.
14
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
6 Summary and Conclusion
Starting point of this work was the goal to develop an ontology that provides new
information logistics services in the transportation sector and that is able to support
self-organisation in order to adapt to new situations and requirements. The introduced
OTS ontology supports the delivery of already specified new information logistics
services like Electronic Seal or Electronic Fence. However, new services can emerge
in the future, which require the assessment of different situations. For instance, the
ElementarySituation class has no direct function in the OTS whereas it might
be used in the future to exploit customer’s preparedness to pay for the services, e.g.
booking an elementary situation can be provided at a lower price than booking a
complex situation, which is represented by ComplexSituation class. Such
services can be realized by adding more rules to the knowledge base. New sensor
types and situation types will be added by the creation of new instances of the
respective classes. The practical evaluation of the OTS has been conducted by adding
four trailer instances to the knowledge base, each having different situations and time
stamps. In doing so, we were able to observe how well the inference rules work. The
future work might include the application of the ontology in a concrete environment.
Developing the ontology revealed the importance of the definition of rules for
ontology driven applications. Thus, we added an additional step for rule definition in
the ontology development process by Noy and McGuinness [3]. Furthermore, their
approach was shifted from the slot-based ontology design to an OWL2 compatible way
of ontology creation.
Regarding self-organisation, we conclude that some aspects of self-organization are
already well covered by OTS. However, there are also some shortcomings that need to
be solved in order to fully support self-organization. A problem is the content aware
communication and data processing as proposed for wireless sensor networks. A link
between necessary knowledge in order to perform tasks on the upper layers to the
processes on the Technical Layer is missing. Additionally, the definition of fall-backs
and alternative procedures is missing in OTS and a more comprehensive way of
representing service requirements would be desirable. Solving these issues would
foster the use of ontologies like OTS for self-organizing information systems.
References
1. Cox S (2013) Geographic information — Observations and measurements V2.0. OGC
Abstract Specification. http://portal.opengeospatial.org/files/?artifact_id=41579. Accessed
14 Feb 2014
2. Studer R, Benjamins V.R., Fensel D. Knowledge engineering: Principles and methods. Data
& Knowledge Engineering, 25(1– 2):161–197, 1998.
3. F. Noy N, L. Mcguinness D. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your first
ontology. Development, 32(1):1–25, 2000.
4. Öhgren A, Sandkuhl K, editors. Towards a methodology for ontology development in small
and medium-sized enterprises, 2005.
15
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
5. Corcho Ó, Fernández-López M, Gómez-Pérez, A. Methodologies, tools and languages for
building ontologies: Where is their meeting point? Data Knowledge Engineering, 46(1):41–
64, 2003.
6. De Mola, F., and Quitadamo, R. (2006). Towards an Agent Model for Future Autonomic
Communications, Proceedings of the 7th WOA 2006 Workshop From Objects to Agents,
Catania, Italy, Sept. 26-27, 2006, Retrieved June 18, 2012, from:
http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS/Vol-204/P07.pdf.
7. Elmenreich, Wilfried; Meer, Hermann de (2008): Self-Organizing Networked Systems for
Technical Applications: A Discussion on Open Issues. In KarinAnna Hummel, JamesP.G
Sterbenz (Eds.): Self-Organizing Systems, vol. 5343: Springer Berlin Heidelberg (Lecture
Notes in Computer Science), pp. 1–9. Available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-
540-92157-8_1.
8. Parsia B, Sirin E, Grau BC et al. (2005) Cautiously Approaching SWRL.
http://www.mindswap.org/papers/CautiousSWRL.pdf
9. Kokar MM, Matheus CJ, Baclawski K (2009) Ontology-based Situation Awareness. Inf.
Fusion 10(1): 83–98. doi: 10.1016/j.inffus.2007.01.004
10. Lundqvist, M., 2007. Information Demand and Use: Improving Information Flow within
Small-scale Business Contexts, Licentiate of Engineering, Department of Computer and
Information Science, Linköpings universitet.
11. Lundqvist, M.; Sandkuhl, K.; Seigerroth, U. (2011) Modelling Information Demand in an
Enterprise Context: Method, Notation and Lessons Learned. International Journal Systems
Modeling and Design, Vol. 2 (3), IGI Publishing, pp. 74-96, 2011.
12. Endsley MR (1995) Toward a Theory of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems. hum
factors 37(1): 32–64. doi: 10.1518/001872095779049543
13. Baumgartner N, Gottesheim W, Mitsch S et al. (2010) Editorial: BeAware!-Situation
Awareness, the Ontology-driven Way. Data Knowl. Eng. 69(11): 1181–1193. doi:
10.1016/j.datak.2010.07.008
14. Kurt Sandkuhl: Information Logistics in Networked Organizations: Selected Concepts and
Applications. Enterprise Information Systems, 9th International Conference, ICEIS 2008.
LNBIP, Springer.
15. Henson CA, Pschorr JK, Sheth AP et al. (2009) SemSOS: Semantic Sensor Observation
Service. In: Proceedings of the 2009 International Symposium on Collaborative
Technologies and Systems. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC, USA, pp 44–53
16. Holzer, Richard; Meer, Hermann de; Bettstetter, Christian (2008): On Autonomy and
Emergence in Self-Organizing Systems. In KarinAnna Hummel, JamesP.G Sterbenz (Eds.):
Self-Organizing Systems, vol. 5343: Springer Berlin Heidelberg (Lecture Notes in
Computer Science), pp. 157–169. Available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-
92157-8_14.
17. Hemalatha M, Uma V, Aghila G (2012) Time ontology with Reference Event based
Temporal Relations (RETR). International Journal of Web & Semantic Technology 3(1)
18. Sandkuhl, Kurt; Borchardt, Ulrike; Lantow, Birger; Stamer, Dirk; Wißotzki, Matthias
(2012): Towards Adaptive Business Models for Intelligent Information Logistics in
Transportation. In Natalia Aseeva, Eduard Babkin, Oleg Kozyrev (Eds.): Perspectives in
Business Informatics Research - 11th International Conference, BIR 2012, Nizhny
Novgorod, Russia, September 24-26, 2012. Satellite Workshops and Doctoral Consortium.
Nizhny Novgorod.
16
2nd International Workshop on Ontologies and Information Systems
19. Probst F (2007) Semantic Reference Systems for Observations and Measurements. PhD,
University of Münster
20. Bröring A, Stasch C, Echterhoff J (2012) Sensor Observation Interface Standard v2.0.
https://portal.opengeospatial.org/files/?artifact_id=47599
21. Botts M, Robin A (2007) OpenGIS® Sensor Model Language SensorML Implementation
Specification
17