=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-133/paper-11
|storemode=property
|title=Enhancing Collaboration Services with Business Context Models
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-133/CSGC_No10_Zacarias.pdf
|volume=Vol-133
|authors=M. Zacarias,A. Marques,H. Pinto,J. Tribolet
}}
==Enhancing Collaboration Services with Business Context Models==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-133/CSGC_No10_Zacarias.pdf
Enhancing Collaboration Services with Business Context Models
Marielba Zacarias 1,2, Ana Rita Marques3, H. Sofia Pinto 3,4 José Tribolet 1,3
1 Center for Organizational Engineering, INESC, Lisboa, Portugal.
2 Universidade do Algarve, ADEEC--FCT, Faro, Portugal.
3 Department of Information Systems and Computer Science, IST/UTL,Lisbon, Portugal.
4 ALGOS, INESC--ID, Lisboa, Portugal
mzacaria@ualg.pt, ana.amado@clix.pt, sofia@algos.inesc--id.pt, jose.tribolet@inov.pt
Abstract. In this paper we refine an organizational model to describe the execution of business activities.
The model offers a dynamic, actor--centered, context--based and business process oriented perspective of
the organization that explicitly addresses information, cooperation and collaboration needs derived from
human multi--tasking capabilities. This modeling approach aims to facilitate the design of collaboration
services capable of providing a more appropriate support for groups of interacting individuals. We
illustrate our model with an example from an on--going case study, which was elaborated applying speech
act theory to case study observations.
Keywords: collaboration, context, business process, human multi--tasking, organizational modelling
1. Introduction and Motivation
Professional, service and administrative areas of the organization involve the execution of semi--
structured and ad--hoc activities. Technological support for cooperation and collaboration in these
business activities is provided by a variety of groupware applications (commonly called collaboration
services) such as e--mail, chat, discussion boards and file sharing systems. All these systems offer a partial
support to human business actors. Designing an appropriate technological support for groups of
interacting people is not trivial (Slagter 2004).
First, the required task--technology fit (Zigurs and Buckland 1998) means to achieve a complicated and
delicate balance between providing a sufficiently rich support and avoiding information overload.
Workers’ information needs depend on action contexts defined by personal, role, task and time factors
(Zacarias et al. 2005). Current work dynamics forces human business actors to frequently “switch” among
several action contexts. Human multi--tasking capabilities and limitations are studied by Experimental
Psychology (Rubinstein, Meyer and Evans 2001). Several cognitive theories claim the existence of mental
executive processes that supervise and manage the execution of tasks. An analogy of executive processes
with multi--tasking operating systems is established in (Kieras et al. 2000). Improving the task--
technology fit entails devising collaboration services that provide an integral, personalized and timely
information support to human business actors. This kind of support requires (1) determining action context
specific needs and (2) a better understanding of action context--changing patterns.
Second, the social technical--gap, i.e. the gap between social requirements and what technology is able to
support, is considered one of the fundamentals challenge of computer supported cooperative work
research (Ackerman 2000). Interactions among human actors involved in the execution of business
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activities create social contexts reflecting the knowledge shared by these interacting actors. These business
contexts include knowledge about current “state of affairs” i.e., current state of activity, participating
actors and objects. Business context behavior is determined by shared assumptions, expectations, habits,
protocols and rules, which support and regulate interactions among actors. Social contexts are dynamic
constructs with different behavior among instances of organizational settings, activities and participants
(Dourish 2004). Groupware social--technical gap can be reduced with the provision of context models
enabling “context--informed” collaboration services that act according to the specific knowledge and
behavior of each business context.
In this paper, we refine an organizational model introduced in (Zacarias et al. 2005) to describe the
execution of business activities. This model, which offers a dynamic, actor--centered, context--based and
business process oriented perspective of the organization, explicitly addresses information, cooperation
and collaboration needs derived from human multi--tasking capabilities. The model seeks to facilitate: (1)
improvement of task--technology fit, (2) reduction of social--technical gap and (3) balance between
individual and group needs, when designing collaboration services. Moreover, since groupware often fails
for lack of an explicit task control (Houben 1998), explicit business context models provide a means for
supporting the execution of ad--hoc activities. The remaining of this paper is structured as follows: section
2 reviews related work on context and speech--act theory. Section 3 refines our model. Section 4
illustrates our model with an example from an on--going case study. The example was elaborated applying
speech act theory to case study observations. Section 5 offers our conclusions and future directions.
2. Related Work
This section presents work supporting our concepts and modeling approach. Section 2.1 contrasts the
engineering and sociological approaches to context and briefly discusses two context--based
organizational models. Section 2.2 summarizes Speech Act Theory concepts.
2.1. The notions of Context
Although the notion of context plays an important role in multiple disciplines, there is no standard concept
or theory. This notion varies according its area of application. However, there is consensus around one
single idea: its relational nature i.e., context is always related to something else.
Classical Engineering Approach: In engineering, context has been approached as a stable and discrete
notion. Context is viewed a collection of things (sentences, propositions, assumptions, properties,
procedures, rules, facts, concepts, constraints, sentences, etc) associated to situations (environment,
domain, task, agents, interactions, conversations, etc). This notion is reflected by the “box metaphor”
(Benerecetti, Bouquet and Ghidini 2001). The intuition is that context is a “box” where its content
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depends on a set of parameters. The specific parameter set varies according to the area of application. In
Artificial Intelligence, parameters (called dimensions) such as time, location, culture, topic, granularity
and modality have been proposed as defining elements of context (Lenat). Context--aware applications
identify localization, user identity, activity and time as context parameters (Dey 1999). A proposal for a
workflow context in Maus (2001) includes the following parameters: function, behavior, causality,
organization, information, operation and history.
Sociological Approaches: Seeking to improve system sensitivity to specific settings, research in context--
aware computing is focusing on a view of context inspired by sociological investigations of real--world
practice (Dourish 2004). This work contrasts the objective account of engineering and the subjective
account of phenomenology and discusses the implications of approaching context from the latter
perspective. The phenomenological perspective argues that (1) context is a relational property among
objects, (2) the scope of contextual features are defined dynamically, (2) context is relevant to particular
settings, instances of action and participants and (4) context and activity are not separable i.e. context is
embedded in activity and arises from it. Under this perspective, the focus moves from context
representation to context support.
The apparent contradiction between the objective and subjective positions is denied by Structuration
Theory (Giddens 1984), which seeks a balance between both positions. According to this theory,
interactions among subjects both produce and reproduce social practices. On one side, social practices are
produced from interactions among subjects. On the other side, from these interactions emerges an
objective structure (interaction context) which provides rules and resources that simultaneously support
the reproduction of social practices and constrain subject interactions.
Context Use in Organizational Models: Distributed knowledge management projects (Bonifacio and
Bouquet 2002) recognize the subjective, social, and nature of knowledge, and approach organizations as a
network of contexts. These projects are developing theoretical frameworks and technical solutions under
this organizational perspective. A context--based approach of organizations is also proposed in (Gachet
and Brézillon 2005). This work makes a case for the need of making explicit several kinds of
organizational contexts. Although context--based, these approaches are not business process--oriented and
do not address human context changing dynamics.
2.2. Speech Act Theory
Developed by Austin (1975) and extended by Searle (1968), speech act theory focuses on the use of
language to modify states of affairs, rather than to describe states of affairs. Austin claimed the existence
of sentence that were in themselves actions and called them performatives. Performatives express a
3
speaker’s intention with his hearer. Performatives are not true or false, they succeed or fail. Performatives
succeed if they satisfy a set of social conventions called by Austin as felicity conditions. The action
involved in a performative is a speech act. Thus, performatives are speech acts subject to felicity
conditions. According to Austin a speech act is composed of three kinds of acts: the locutionary act is the
act of uttering the words, the illocutionary act reflects the speech act intended effects and the
perlocutionary act reflects the speech act actual effects. Perlocutionary acts are less frequently tied to
verbal expressions Searle does not distinguish among the locutionary and the illocutionary acts. Rather, he
describes speech acts in terms of a propositional content and its illocutionary force, which expresses the
speaker’s intention. The propositional content is a dimension of the illocutionary act. Since its origins,
speech act theory has been applied in several areas such as discourse analysis, message structuring and
categorization, agent communication language design and organizational modeling .
3. Modeling Business Contexts
We start this section defining business contexts in terms of three overlapped, but still different, concepts:
activity, action and interaction contexts. Later we use these concepts in refining our model.
3.1. Defining Business Contexts
Contexts are used in several areas. The context notion of engineering has been mainly used for automation
purposes, i.e. enhancing automated actors or reasoning mechanisms. Nevertheless, when aiming at
supporting human actors, social sciences offer a more appropriate approach to context.
Table 1. Action Context parameters and Contents
Task Part of business activities, which in turn are part of business processes. Tasks are described with a
predicate (verb and complements). The task parameter defines formal behavior and information needs
Role Capabilities used by an actor in executing a specific task. Although also described with a verb and its
complements, tasks and roles are different. The role parameter defines other kind of formal
information needs.
Individual Human actor executing a task. Individual are described with proper nouns. The individual parameter
defines preferences and habits such as preferred locations, tools or methods, and informal information
needs.
Time Specific moments or time intervals, defines time--related information relevance
Contents
Behavior Relevant set of actions and interactions relevant for an action context. Action and interactions are the
atomic units of behavior of our model. Can be formal (pre--defined by task or roles) or informal (not--
predefined)
Action Described with a verb and its complements. The verb describes a specific act, the direct complement
describes an information item used or produced in that act. Circunstancial complements describe
action--related preferences or habits.
Interactions Their description is more complex. We describe them using speech act theory. Verbs are also an
important identifier of interactions. Whilst some verbs are related to actions, others are related to
interactions.
Information needs Formal and informal information items used, produced and shared in action context actions and
interactions.
Information items Can be formal or informal. Formal information items are embedded in documents and files of
different kinds. Informal items are ideas, facts, meanings, questions, answers, point of views and so
on, used in building formal information items. Embedded in messages.
4
The main components of action contexts are illustrated in table 1. An action context reflects the actual
behavior and information needs of a human actor when he performs a specific task under a given role.
Since these needs change in time, an action context defines an actor’s state during some time interval.
Such state represents a subset of actor’s properties and their values and it is determined by his on--going
actions and interactions. Although we here use the “box metaphor” of the engineering approach, this is
not a discrete notion since we will consider several relevance degrees.
Human actors participating in a business activity act and interact from specific action contexts. These
interactions are partially determined by the activity context i.e., pre--defined activity behavior and activity
state. At execution time, successive interactions among action contexts create a collective object that we
define as the interaction context. This definition is mostly influenced by sociological approaches to
context. The interaction context reflects actual activity--related behavior and state of affairs. The shared
part of interacting action contexts and the activity context belong to the interaction context. Thus, these
concepts are somewhat overlapped. Interaction context behavior is determined by a number of elements
such as interaction rules and protocols. Interaction protocols describe valid sets of action and interaction
sequences among action contexts that meet specific purposes related to tasks or activities. Interaction
rules define the set of conditions required for successful interactions among action contexts. Both
cooperation and collaboration in business activities are supported and regulated by the specific rules and
protocols of the interaction context where they take place. Figure 1 illustrates the interaction context main
components.
Interaction
Interaction
Protocols
Protocols&&Rules
Rules
Shared
Shared Shared
Shared
Action
Action Interaction Context Action
Action
Context
Context Context
Context
Fig 1. Interaction Components main components
In summary, business contexts are approached as dynamic and composite concepts formed by the
interplay of several action contexts mediated by an activity and interaction context. Business context
particular properties and behavior will depend on the action and interaction history among participating
actors. Different human actors performing identical tasks and roles behave differently. Consequently,
business contexts of identical activities and role sets but with different participants, will exhibit different
properties and behavior.
3.2. Modeling Organizations: an “Operating Systems” Metaphor
Due to their multi--tasking nature, human business actors are capable of handling several action contexts
and participating in several interaction contexts .We propose a model to that explicitly addresses human
context identification and management capabilities. Figure 2 illustrates our model. The organization is
viewed as a network of individual and collective multi--tasking actors. The model explodes the actor
5
notion and approaches it as a network of contexts managed by actor’s own “operating system”. Three
kinds of actors are defined: human, business process actor and organization actor. Human actors are
modeled as a network of action contexts. Human “operating system” determines individual habits and
action context changing patterns. The business process actor is a collective actor modeled as a network of
activity contexts. Its “operating system” acts as an “engine” managing the execution of pre--defined flows
of work. The organization actor is another collective actor which represents sets of organized groups of
interacting individuals with specific purposes such as teams or departments. It is modeled as a network of
interaction contexts. The organization “operating system”: (1) provides a communication environment
based on shared expectations, rules and protocols which support and regulate activity--related actions and
interactions and (2) manages ad--hoc behavior and exceptions not handled by business processes. The
inclusion of two kinds of collective actors explicitly acknowledges the organization’s capability to act
flexibly by combining pre--defined and structured behavior with ad--hoc behavior. It also acknowledges
that operational procedures handled by business processes, are ultimately modified by individual features
and social practices of the human actors involved in its execution.
The “Business Context”
Organization
“Operating
n System” Co
tio nt
ca ex
tifi t Id
en en
t Id tif
ex Interaction Context ic
nt Management
at
io
Co n
Interaction Context
Human Human
Action Action
“Operating Interactions “Operating
Context Context
System” System”
Activity
Context
Pr n
oc tio
ca
es
s
Activity Context
tifi
Id Management en
en Id
tif s
ic es
at oc
io
n Business Pr
Process
“Operating
System”
Fig 2. The proposed model based on the Operating Systems Metaphor
We use the operating systems metaphor for several reasons. First, it provides a conceptual framework
with a clear cut separation between actual execution and its management. Second, it allows a dynamic
view of actors. Third, it offers a straightforward abstraction of human multi--tasking capabilities. In order
to act or interact, human actors must first identify and activate the corresponding action context. This
metaphor allows an explicit representation of context identification and management operations. From our
point of view, this organizational perspective facilitates a more personalized and timely support to human
business actors. Moreover, an overall view of individual and collective actors facilitates the design of
services seeking a balance between individual and group needs. The model assumes a flexible business
process management. However, we do not focus on business process issues. Rather, we address model
context--related concepts from a business process perspective. In our work, we aim at building dynamic
business context models from activity--related action and interaction history. Specifically, we seek to
6
capture particular elements of: (1) interaction contexts, i.e. shared action contexts (2) human “operating
systems”, i.e. individual habits and action context--changing patterns, and (3) organization “operating
system” i.e., supporting and regulating elements of action context interactions, such as shared interaction
rules and protocols.
4. Example
In order to illustrate our model, we present an example from observations of an on--going case study,
which involves a software development team of 4 programmers and their project manager. The team
develops web applications for a commercial bank. Due to space limitations, we do not describe the
collecting procedure in detail. Computer and non--computer based actions and interactions of the team
were registered in a chronological order. This was manually done by team members and complemented by
the project manager. Each action or interaction was described with separated sentence. Three weeks of
actions and interactions were registered, encompassing 534 sentences.
Table 2. Applying speech act theory to interactions
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"! $%
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1 1 %! 0 2 2 " 2 1 1 %! 0 " !.1 1 1 %! 0 2 7 / .1 1 1 %! 0
" 2 " ! " .1 " ! " .1 " ! " " 2 " ! " .1 2 " 2 " ! " .1
"" !! " " " " " " () ) +* 6 , " " 2"8 " " 2"8
9 / 2 : ! " ! 9 / " !
"" !% " ! " " ! "
" " -
" " /" !8 " " " " "8
7 / .1 4 7 / .1 ;.1 / 0 3 4 4 7 / .1 4 7 / .1
1 1 %! 0 2 1 1 %! 0 2 7 / .1 1 1 %! 0 1 1 %! 0 2 1 1 %! 0 2
" 2 " ! " .1 " 2 " ! " .1 2 " 2 " ! " " 2 " ! " .1 " 2 " ! " .1
"" !% " " " " " " () ) +# * , " " 2"8 " " 2"8
0 ! 0 !
"" "!
" " $ 3 4
/" !8 " " /" !8 " "
/ 0 3 4 7 / .1 / 0 < 7 1 7 / =1
1 1 %! 0 2 1 1 %! 0 2 " " - 3 4 1/ '1
" 2 " ! " " 2 " ! " " !! " " " !! " " / 0
"" #! " " " " / 0 2"8
7
Table 1 illustrates some structured actions and interactions, based on Searle’s approach. We distinguished
among illocutionary and perlocutionary acts. The latter were determined establishing cause--effect
relationships among related actions and interactions. We identified illocutionary force (in uppercase) and
propositional content of illocutionary acts. We used the terms sender--receiver, rather than speaker--hearer
since several interactions were computer--mediated. By appropriately grouping actor actions and
interactions, we may discover actual roles, tasks and activities. This grouping is illustrated in table 3 for
actor Ann. We inferred the manage project role from the following actions and interactions: (1) request
project control meeting, (2) do prepare project report status and (3) answer application related
information. Also, two Ann’s tasks were identified: (1) control team software projects and (2) provide
application--related information. The identification of tasks and roles required analyzing illocutionary
force and propositional content of illocutionary acts.
Table 3. Identifying human actors and their roles, tasks and activities
& ' (
" " 1 ); " ! 1
), ! " !
>, 1 " '1 % 1 " '1
#, 4 7 / =1 1 1 %! 0 ? >; : 2 " ! " !" 2 0
" 4 7 / =1 1 1 %! 0 ?
Table 2 also shows. how illocutionary and perlocutionary acts change Sender’s and Receiver’s states.
These states describe actors’ information and collaboration needs. This enables to identify actors’ different
action contexts and their evolution in time. Table 4 shows the evolution of two action contexts: (1) Ann
executing task prepare control meeting under the role of manage projects between 9 and 14:00 and (2)
Ann executing task provide application--related information (under the same role) between 11 and 14:00.
Table 4. Ann’s action contexts
& ' ( '
() , " " 1 " ! @ +* * - %& ' 1.
) * +# * ! ' !)/ % 0
) * +# * " " 2 1 2
) 5 +* * 1 " '1
(> , " " 1 :2 " ! " !" 2 0 ) ) ) ) +# * '1 3 4 7 / =1 1 1 %! 0 2
" 2 " ! " " "
) ) +# * '1 3 / 0 " " 7 / =1
1 1 %! 0 2 " 2 " ; " "
To appropriately identify human and organization “operating system” elements, more complex analysis
techniques are required. In table 5 we show some basic elements of a human (5a) and business context
(5b) operating systems identified in table 2 and complemented by Ann. In this example we are not
showing any interaction rule.
Table 5. “Operating System” Elements
)))) & * + , )))) * + - * +
& , 1 21 1 " '1 )/ % 0 / " ! !+
. )))) / 0 + "+ ' 1 / "1<1 () ,
:2 " ! " !" 2 0 " &% "'1 / 1 "1< 1 1/ (> , " " / 2" "
( ! 2 %8 , (# , )/
. / 0 + 1 + 4 / 0 & " !! / 0 " " (5 , "
8
Whilst modeling action contexts (table 4) enables to support actors’ specific execution needs, capturing
human “operating systems” allows helping actors to manage his several tasks (table 5a). Collaboration
services based on the organization’s particular interaction rules and protocols (organization operating
system ---- table 5b) would provide a more appropriate support to group interactions.
5. Conclusions and Future Work
In this paper we refine a dynamic, actor----centered, context----based and business process oriented
modeling approach to describe the execution of business activities introduced in (Zacarias et al. 2005).
Business contexts are defined as the interplay of three kinds of context: activity, action and interaction
contexts. The model uses an operating systems metaphor to address information, cooperation and
collaboration needs taking into account human multi----tasking capabilities. We illustrate our model with
an example elaborated using a speech act----based analysis of action and interaction logs of an----going
case study. This method offers several benefits. It eases log analysis as it makes explicit shared
information and collaboration needs of human actors. It also provides a common format and it will enable
to decompose interactions into machine----understandable elements.
The overall goals of our research are: (1) provide an organizational view to facilitate the design of
“context informed” services that improve task----technology fit, reduce socio----technical gap and balance
individual and group information and collaboration needs, (2) provide groupware with means for
supporting the execution of ad----hoc activities and (3) provide a bottom up approach for the specification
of tasks and roles.
Our work is in a preliminary stage. At this present moment we are focusing on defining ways to describe
and represent business contexts. Manual analyses pose several limitations. Automated support for log
storage and analysis must be developed. Analyzing actions and interactions with speech act theory enables
the retrieval of contextual knowledge, but it does not convey valuable tacit knowledge. Observation and
collection procedures must be enhanced with techniques to elicit this knowledge. Specifically,
ethnographic methods will be explored. We aim at creating dynamic business context models from action
and interaction logs. This will require further structuring the logs and researching on appropriate analysis
and modeling techniques. Model validation methods must also be devised. Additional case studies are
required to further test, adjust and refine our model as well as our observation and collection procedures.
9
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