=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1358/paper6
|storemode=property
|title=Digital Badges and Ethics: The Uses of Individual Learning Data in Social Contexts
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1358/paper6.pdf
|volume=Vol-1358
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/lak/WillisQH15
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==Digital Badges and Ethics: The Uses of Individual Learning Data in Social Contexts==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1358/paper6.pdf
Digital Badges and Ethics: The Uses of Individual
Learning Data in Social Contexts
James E. Willis, III Joshua Quick Daniel T. Hickey
Indiana University Indiana University Indiana University
1900 East Tenth Street, Room 504 1900 East Tenth Street, Room 503 1900 East Tenth Street, Room 506
Bloomington, Indiana 47406 Bloomington, Indiana 47406 Bloomington, Indiana 47406
001-812-856-1483 001-251-463-6070 001-812-856-2344
jaedwill@indiana.edu jdquick@indiana.edu dthickey@indiana.edu
ABSTRACT 1. INTRODUCTION
Empirical evidence contained in open digital badges has the
Amongst recent developments in educational technology
capability to change educational curricula, assessments, and
innovation, open digital badges are positioned to have ever-
priorities. Because badge data in educational, social media,
increasing influence on learners, teachers, institutions, and
and workforce contexts is publicly available, questions of
the workforce [1]. This influence changes several major
privacy and ethics should be scrutinized. Due to change
components of education: transparency of assessments,
driven by digital transparency, ethical questions at the
validated evidence of learning, granularity in skills
intersection of learning analytics and the data contained in
development, and demonstration of skills in digital social
badges poses three distinct, yet related questions: within
networks [2]. Perhaps the final point, the publicity of such
learning analytics systems, can the use of educational data
learning, is the least explored component of badges
in digital badges be used in a predictive manner to create a
research to date. Simply, what can be known about the
deterministic future for individual learners? Can badge data
effect of badges networked via social media on various
that is freely and openly accessible in social media be used
outcomes like employment is tenuous at best [3]. The social
against individuals if it exposes intellectual weaknesses?
aspect of digital badges includes a host of questions
And, can the student data in badges be isolated to exploit
pertaining to what data is available and to whom, how it is
particular skills for nefarious reasons, i.e. surveillance or
distributed and acquired by other parties, and what occurs
hacking? These questions address ethical principles of
with individual and aggregate learners’ data. In an age of
human autonomy, freedom, and determinism.
web crawlers, data collection firms, and predictive
algorithms, these questions warrant exploring.
Categories and Subject Descriptors The possible educational data contained in badges,
K.4.1 [Public Policy Issues]: Ethics. including assessments, validation, and demonstration of
skills, is of value as one aspect of a wider and growing
General Terms body of research in learning analytics [4]. The open digital
Algorithms, Design, Experimentation, Security, Human badge as an artifact of learning contains a key social aspect
Factors, Theory, Legal Aspects that conventional transcripts did not [5]. While learners
may elect to distribute digital badges across social media
Keywords outlets (like Facebook, LinkedIn, or Twitter), traditional
Ethics, Open Digital Badges, Education, Learning collegiate transcripts are typically withheld and only
Analytics, Social Media, Networks, Autonomy, Human distributed to another party at the learner’s explicit request.
Freedom, Determinism. This availability of student data, though freely and willfully
disseminated in a learner’s digital network, poses specific
ethical concerns. The morality of data usage is certainly
heterogeneous in today’s widely-expanding ecosystem of
educational technology, but the specific ethical issues with
Copyright © by the paper’s authors. Copying permitted for digital badges concern the broad implication of human
private and academic purposes. autonomy, freedom, and determinism. The research
In: D. Hickey, J. Jovanovic, S. Lonn, J.E. Willis, III (eds.):
questions pertaining to badges, then, are meant to pivot
Proceedings of the Open Badges in Education (OBIE 2015)
Workshop, Poughkeepsie, New York, USA, 16-Mar-2015, from three distinct, yet interrelated, modalities of the
published at http://ceur-ws.org. intersection of digital ethics and learning analytics:
• Within learning analytics systems, can the use of badge ecosystems could strengthen a learning analytics’
educational data in digital badges be used in a predictive strength. For example, with the completion of
predictive manner to create a deterministic future for several badges in both curricular and extra-curricular
individual learners? activities, data points could be amalgamated to further
• Can badge data that is freely and openly accessible in bolster a student’s educational strengths and support
social media be used against individuals if it exposes possible weaknesses. The specificity of assessment data,
intellectual weaknesses? where final grades in college courses could be aligned with
• Can the student data in badges be isolated to exploit performance data in badges, could provide extremely
particular skills for nefarious reasons, i.e. surveillance valuable information not only to the learner, but also the
or hacking? institution supporting the learner, as well as the businesses
developing learning analytics systems.
2. ETHICS, EDUCATIONAL As analytics systems increase their capability of predicting
TECHNOLOGY, AND BADGES student outcomes, it may be difficult to distinguish between
With the expansion of educational technology, some work the strength of the predictive algorithm and the role of
is being done at the intersection of ethical theory and determinism as it affects students. This is not to say that the
learning analytics [6]. Some propose ethical frameworks same would be true of digital badges, though. In this
for development [7], while others appeal specifically to instance, determinism would entail the ability to either
known problems in the legal use of student data in analytics sequentially offer badges to purposely build a set of skills
systems [8]. This is a growing domain of research in the in a learner without his/her explicit knowledge or to
broader implications of how educational technology affects suggest that a self-fulfilling prophecy of ability would be
student growth and development. set forth with badge data. A student’s interaction with
content leading to a badge may be examined for
Though some commentators have noted the potentially- motivational aspects, perhaps even for so-called
harmful aspects of having open data in social networks, to gamification reasons. However, could the data contained
date there has been scant studies of ethical issues in open with badges be used to constrain a determined future?
digital badges [9]. As research in the ethics of educational Meaning, if students are directly motivated to achieve
technology expands, a myriad of potential problems looms certain badges, their interests may be piqued either with the
[10]. To bridge this gap, targeted ethical questions must be content or with simply obtaining a badge; the question,
specific enough to demonstrate applicability, but also be then, is what effect the badge may have on future
generalizable enough to warrant attention outside of the educational choices. Today’s use of digital badges is often
broadly-considered technology. to enhance learning and provide open and transparent
Due to their connection with social networks, availability evidence of learning. It is impossible to say if this will
of meta-data, and transparency of learning, digital badges continue, and what possible effect badges may have on
face important ethical questions best formulated within the learners’ educational choices. A determined future, one
larger context of learning analytics. shaped by an algorithm targeting content and ability, may
not be suitable to human freedom and autonomy.
3. PREDICTION AND BADGE DATA: A Important to learning is the chance – and the eventuality –
DETERMINISTIC FUTURE? of failure. Learning and carrying on from failure is a
Learning analytics systems are becoming increasingly hallmark of resilient students who become as self-
powerful tools to help students utilize educational data to actualized as possible. Badges can certainly help mitigate
achieve academic success [11]. Such data points are ever- educational failure because they are used to supplement
precise, refined by multiple cohorts, experiments, and through micro-credentialing, build on skills to be successful
digital developments. One of the drivers of such in other educational contexts, and provide a lasting record
development is statistical regression which helps predict of one’s accomplishments. Yet, human freedom and
when students need help [12], what classes might be autonomy must be examined in light of these technological
beneficial in customized sequences [13], and how certain developments. If learning analytics in the systemic sense
interventions benefit different types of students [14]. The and digital badges in the individual sense are able to
robustness of learning analytics systems are built with data absolutely minimize failure, could learners suffer from not
refined over time and with evidence of successful student having to form resilience? The possibility of minimizing
outcomes [15]. failure and preventing failure is determinism for
individuals, though the data available in digital badges
Open digital badges contain multiple points of valuable poses numerous ethical questions related to public
educational data including assessments, specific skills disclosure of student data. Learning analytics systems used
development, and validation amongst others. Built within at schools are controlled by regulations (like FERPA), and
learning analytics systems, the evidence presented in are thus “closed” systems, whereas open badges make
badges can help detail a student’s educational strengths and educational and learning data public.
weaknesses. Further, the data available in well-designed
4. PUBLIC LEARNING DATA AND publishing particular data points. Further, if such
NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES algorithms can threaten learning weaknesses in individual
One of the benefits of open digital badges is that they can learners, the same may be true for the entire badge
publically demonstrate a set of skills; downloadable into ecosystems because a badge’s validity, no matter the
various social media, badges can evidence real learning expertise involved in the content development, deployment,
[16]. If a learner chooses not to disclose a badge on social and verification, could be threatened. The possibilities
media, but instead download the badge into an email highlighted within learning analytics systems and in
format, the data can still be used in a closed system with individual learning may well point to more sinister uses of
employers as a link on a resume [17]. The social aspect, data.
then, stems from the ability of the learner to disclose proof
of learning that, heretofore, was protected or closed 5. LEARNING DATA USED FOR
information. The evidence, the proof of learning, may NEFARIOUS PURPOSES
transform education through transparency [18]. Similarly, The increasing specificity of learning data within digital
badges may well transform workforce skills demonstration badges may lead to nefarious uses of that data in aggregate
through the use of social media sites like LinkedIn [19]. or individual cases. The use of predictive models in
learning analytics coupled with evidence of skills
The data contained in digital badges, depending on the
development in digital badges disseminated across social
issuer and what the learner chooses to display, can be quite
media could help companies, governments, and perhaps
detailed and specific. Combined data of multiple badges
even disreputable organizations recruit for nefarious
could be used by web crawlers or data companies to build
purposes like hacking or surveillance. Furthermore, if
individual profiles of learners, including what content they
learners are completing badges “recommended” to them for
would like to purchase, what specific skills could be
the ulterior motives of developing certain skills, could such
utilized in the workforce, or how future content might be
information be used against them if they later refuse to
developed to attract similar learners. To illustrate the point,
participate in questionable activities? This may sound
the evolution of massive open online courses (MOOCs)
rather extreme, but when educational data is used across
struggled to catalyze around a business model, though
social media and within predictive systems, it is impossible
recently what has emerged are verified certificates that can
to state how such data might be used. Additionally, while
be quite lucrative to students and recruiting companies
this may not come to fruition, the logical extremity is
alike [20]. While it is yet not possible to say if MOOCs can
useful to examine the possible uses of future data.
be digital headhunters, the same may be true of digital
badges in the near future. If companies seek highly specific Ethically, the question of learners knowingly or
skills that can be learned through competencies (like unknowingly participating in skills development for
software programming, for example), perhaps badge data nefarious purposes is a question of human freedom, and
would provide not only individual identifiers but also ultimately it rests with the actions of the learner. However,
scoring and assessment data to substantiate such skills. the possibility of future manipulation certainly conflicts
with how popular notions of badges today include that of
Beyond marketing, though, the question must be posed as
supplementing learning, offering opportunity for job
to whether such data could be used to locate and isolate
creation and advancement, and branching learning into
individual learning weaknesses. Assessment data
social spheres.
availability in social media means that a learning profile
could be assembled to indicate what constructs a learner 6. CONCLUSION
does not understand or habitually misses. Such data may Open digital badges are changing the educational
prove dubious if used against the learner in future opportunities for learners of today and tomorrow. The
assessments purposely generated to exploit such intersection of learning analytics systems that may
weaknesses, targeted marketing, or perhaps even incorporate badges, as well as the possibility of learners to
exploitation if threatening job security. The ethical question disseminate evidence of learning across social media
of such data usage becomes more complex, too, when platforms, creates unique ethical questions that fit within
considering what safeguards could be enacted; overreach the larger discussion of machine learning. The uses of data
and paternalism may also hinder a learner’s autonomy, for prediction, isolation of strengths and weaknesses, and
freedom, and right to fail at a task. potential manipulation have direct consequences for
Questions about what data points are useful in social media questions of human autonomy, freedom, and determinism.
contexts are open for debate, but generally arguments seem Such scenarios described herein may appear to be
to tentatively hinge in favoring the position of the exceedingly negative or dystopic to some readers. While
individual learner’s choice to expose or withhold true that some of the scenarios may or may not come to
information. This matter becomes an issue of privacy fruition, they function here not only as a thought
within digital badge ecosystems, however, when students experiment, but also as a model of what may go awry as
may or may not fully comprehend the possible outcomes of increasing amounts of personalized data are distributed,
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