=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1419/paper0024
|storemode=property
|title=Applying a Cognitive-Science Framework for Developing Reading Comprehension through Content Area Learning in Grades K-5
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1419/paper0024.pdf
|volume=Vol-1419
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/eapcogsci/RomanceV15
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==Applying a Cognitive-Science Framework for Developing Reading Comprehension through Content Area Learning in Grades K-5==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1419/paper0024.pdf
Applying a Cognitive-Science Framework for Developing Reading
Comprehension through Content Area Learning in Grades K-5
Nancy R. Romance (romance@fau.edu)
Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road
Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
Michael R. Vitale (vitalem@ecu.edu)
East Carolina University, 5th Street
Greenville, NC 27858 USA
Abstract
education as an approach to deepen understanding and
Presented are the results of a multi-year series of longitudinal
studies conducted in grades 1-5 that have applied consensus optimize reading comprehension achievement.
cognitive science principles to developing reading In recent years, the findings and recommendations across
comprehension proficiency. Presented are the underlying a wide variety of researchers have provided a strong
perspectives for how cumulative conceptual learning in theoretical foundation for the incorporation of cognitive
science results in accelerated learning in both science and science principles when addressing the linkage between
reading. Discussed are the implications of the findings for content area learning and reading comprehension. The first
facilitating systemic school improvement in grades 1 through
has to do with the architecture of knowledge-based
5.
instruction systems (Luger, 2008) originally developed to
Keywords: Integrating reading and content area learning; implement computer-based instructional tutoring systems.
improving reading comprehension The second (Kintsch, 1994, 1998a,1998b, 2004; McNamara
& Kintsch, 1996; McNamara, Vega, & O'Reilly, 2007) has
Consensus interdisciplinary research findings over the last to do with the importance of having a well-structured
decade have identified major factors associated with the curricular environment for learning. The third (Bransford et
development of student reading comprehension proficiency al., 2000; Sowa, 2000) has to do with the role of knowledge
in content areas and literature (Kintsch, 1998a; Vitale & in all new learning and as applied in the problem-solving
Romance, 2007). Specifically, this research has emphasized behavior of experts (i.e., expertise). The fourth has to do
the critical importance of student prior knowledge, how it is with cognitive research dealing with the linkage of
organized, accessed, and expanded through cumulative declarative knowledge to procedural knowledge and
meaningful learning that is based on what is read, how one automaticity (Anderson, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1993, 1996).
understands what is read, and what is taught (Bransford, And, finally, the fifth has to do with principles for the
Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Chi, 1978; Glaser, 1984; National design and development of validated instructional systems
Research Council [NRC], 2006). Opportunities for students (Dick, Cary, & Cary, 2007; Engelmann & Carnine, 1991).
to gain the necessary prior knowledge result from their Building upon this framework, this paper reports the
interaction with a school curriculum that is focused, findings of a series of longitudinal research studies
conceptually organized and meaningfully sequenced across comparing the effects- direct (grades 1-5) and transfer
the K-12 grade span such as models advocated in the (grades 6-8)- of content-focused instruction incorporating
learning progressions research (Alonzo & Gotwals, 2012; consensus interdisciplinary principles on reading
Schmidt et al, 1997). In turn, expertise research (NRC, comprehension to traditional grade 1-5 reading instruction
2006) suggests that prior knowledge is key determinant in the U.S.
underlying abilities to understand and comprehend what one
is learning or reading (Sawyer, 2006). Yet, for the U.S., two
decades of K-12 reform efforts have resulted in only
An Informal Analysis of the Role of Content
minimal progress in accelerating student reading Area Learning on Reading Comprehension
comprehension proficiency as reported by the National An emphasis on cumulative content area learning supports
Assessment of Educational Progress (NCES, 2009, 2012). students learning more about what they have been learning.
As such, students are unprepared to comprehend This knowledge-based perspective enables students to
progressively more complex texts prevalent at the secondary organize what they have learned conceptually so that past
level in content courses such as science, social studies, learning can support new learning. Reading researchers and
mathematics, and literature (NRC, 2014). The overall learning scientists, alike, clearly recognize the critical
research findings cited above suggest that addressing importance of students being able to access their prior
learning and instruction from a knowledge-based knowledge as the basis for new learning and for reading
perspective has not yet been incorporated into K-12 comprehension and writing (Romance & Vitale, 2011a,
169
Table 1: Multi-Year Research Findings: Implementing Science IDEAS across Multiple Classrooms and Schools
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Year(s) Grade(s) Duration Participants Significant Effects of the Science IDEAS
Intervention on Student Achievement
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Early Studies in Grades 4, 5
1992 a 4 1 year 3 classes Initial Science IDEAS study: +.93 GE difference on MAT
Science, and +.33 GE difference on ITBS Reading
1993 b 4 1 year 3 classes Replication: +1.5 GE difference on MAT Science, and +.41
GE difference on ITBS Reading
1996 b 4-5 5 months 15 classes Primarily at-risk students: Grade 5- +2.3 GE mean
difference on MAT Science, and +.51 GE difference on
ITBS Reading. Note- Grade 4 effects were not significant
in this 5-month study
1998 b 4-5 1 year 45 classes Regular and at-risk students: + 1.11 GE difference on MAT
science, and +.37 GE difference on ITBS Reading
Longitudinal Study: Direct Effects in Grades 3, 4, 5 and Indirect/Transfer Effects to Grades 6, 7, 8
2002-2007 c 3-5 multi-year 6 schools Schoolwide implementations in grades 3-5, cross-sectional
longitudinal study with transfer effects assessed in grades
6-8: +.38 GE difference on ITBS Science, and +.32 GE
difference on ITBS Reading across grades 3-8, with the
differences in grades 6-8 demonstrating consistent transfer
effects from grade 3-5 on both science and reading.
d
2003-2008 3-5 multi-year 6 schools Replication study paralleling preceding 2002-2007
findings. Schoolwide implementations in grades 3-5, cross-
sectional longitudinal study with transfer effects assessed in
grades 6-7: +1.30 GE differences on ITBS Science. and
+.71 GE differences in ITBS Reading across grades 3-7,
with the differences in grades 6-7 demonstrating consistent
transfer effects from grade 3-5 on both science and reading.
Studies in Primary Classrooms (K, 1, and 2)
2005 e 1-2 8 weeks 2 schools Schoolwide implementation (Note- K and grade 1 students
were tested at the beginning of their following year in
grades 1 and 2 respectively): Grades 1-2 Overall: +.42 GE
difference in ITBS Science. Grade 2: +.72 GE difference in
ITBS Reading. Note- Grade 1 effect was not significant on
ITBS Reading.
2007 f 1-2 1 year 2 schools Schoolwide implementation: +.16 GE difference on ITBS
Science, and +.58 GE on ITBS Reading
2012 g 1-2 6 Months 9 schools Schoolwide implementation: +.52 GE difference on ITBS
Science, and +.26 GE difference on ITBS Reading
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note 1. MAT: Metropolitan Achievement Test, ITBS: Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, GE: Grade Equivalent Scale Score. Grade
Equivalent adjusted/mean difference scores (see Note 2) were reported as the outcome metric because they are directly
meaningful instructionally .
Note 2. Comparable numbers of demographically-comparable classes/schools used as controls. All analyses findings presented are
statistically-adjusted mean differences between Science IDEAS and Control students. For purposes of interpretation, the adjusted mean
differences in the Table show the improvement in academic achievement for science or reading that resulted from participation in the
Science IDEAS instructional model. For consistency in later studies, non-standardized HLM coefficients (coded as 1 = Experimental, 0 =
Controls) as adjusted means were reported rather than OLS adjusted means.
Note 3. Publication/paper references for each study are (a) Romance & Vitale (1992), (b) Romance & Vitale (2001), (c) Vitale &
Romance (2009), (d) Vitale & Romance (2011b), (e) Vitale & Romance (2011a), (f) Vitale & Romance (2012), and (g) Romance, Vitale,
& Palincsar (2015)
170
2011b, 2012a, 2012b; Vitale & Romance, 2007). One direct 6. Provide students with opportunities to
result of student involvement in such cumulative instruction represent the structure of conceptual
is that they are better prepared to perform more successfully knowledge across cumulative learning
in content-area learning tasks that involve reading experiences as a basis for oral and written
comprehension (see Table 1). Application of a knowledge- communication (e.g., propositional concept
based perspective to instruction at the elementary school mapping, journaling/writing).
level is in direct conflict with the long-standing approach to 7. Reference a variety of conceptually-oriented
K-5 reading instruction in the U.S. in which students engage tasks for the purpose of assessment in order to
on a daily basis with over ninety minutes of instruction distinguish between students with and without
focused on a disconnected array of story selections which in-depth understanding (e.g., distinguishing
have been designated as “literature” and with lists of positive vs. negative examples, use IF/THEN
isolated reading strategies. principles to predict outcomes, apply
abductive reasoning to explain phenomena that
Design and Results of a 20-Year Series of occur in terms of science concepts).
Studies Investigating the Effect of Content 8. Recognize how and why in-depth, meaningful,
cumulative learning within a content-oriented
Area Learning on Reading Comprehension discipline provides a necessary foundation
developing proficiency in reading
Experimental Intervention comprehension and written communication.
The experimental treatment was implemented through a
content-oriented, instructional model in science (Science In implementing the model, instructional time
IDEAS) (Romance & Vitale, 2012) which incorporated the traditionally allocated to reading/language arts instruction
use of five distinct, but highly interrelated, instructional was re-assigned to science. In grades 3-5, science
elements (Hands-on activities, Reading science materials, instruction was allocated from 1.5 to 2 hours daily
Propositional Concept Mapping, Journaling/Writing, Project effectively replacing time traditionally given to reading
applications). In the model, all instruction focused on the instruction. Complementing science instruction at grades 3-
concept relationships to be learned. And, through repeated 5, a separate daily 30 minute time “block” was
use of the five elements across multi-day lessons, the recommended for literature. In grades 1-2, science was
students have multiple opportunities to focus continuously allocated 45 minutes daily, but regular reading instructional
on a set of conceptually-linked science concepts. time was not modified. In the studies, the control students
From a cognitive science perspective, the Science IDEAS experienced business-as-usual. That is, on a daily basis, they
Model can be described in terms of eight “principles” that experienced 1.5 hours of traditional literature-based reading
form the foundation for the model in the area of science. programs and 30 minutes for science.
These are:
1. Use the logical structure of concepts in the Research Design
discipline as the basis for a grade-articulated
Because the emphasis here is on the pattern of findings,
curricular framework.
methodological details in the original sources are not
2. Insure that the curricular framework provides
presented. However, it is important to note the
students with the necessary and relevant prior
methodological commonalities in all of the following
knowledge in order to maximize learning and
overviews. First, all studies reported here were conducted in
understanding (comprehension) of “new”
multicultural urban school systems in southeastern Florida
content to be taught.
having a wide range of student demographics (e.g., ability
3. Focus instruction on core disciplinary concepts
levels, ethnicity, parental income). Second, in each study,
(and relationships) and explicitly address prior
both student and school demographics (ability, ethnicity) of
knowledge and cumulative review.
comparison groups were similar to those of the experimental
4. Provide adequate amounts of initial and
groups. Third, the method of data analysis was a general
follow-up instructional time necessary to
“ordinary least squares” (OLS) linear or a multilevel (HLM)
achieve cumulative conceptual understanding
modeling approach (in later years) in which prior reading
emphasizing “students learning more about
and/or science achievement and/or student demographics
what they are learning”.
typically correlated with prior achievement served as
5. Guide meaningful student conceptual
covariates providing statistical controls. And, fourth, all
organization of knowledge by linking different
student achievement outcomes reported here consisted of
types of instructional activities (e.g., hands-on
nationally-normed reading (ITBS, SAT) and science (ITBS,
science, reading comprehension, propositional
MAT) achievement measures. The findings from the
concept mapping, journaling and writing,
research studies (Romance & Vitale, 1992, 2001, 2011a,
applications).
2012a, 2012b) report the effectiveness of the K-5 Science
171
IDEAS model when (a) the specific amount of instructional majority of schools. The research implications from those
time needed to implement the model is allocated, (b) reviewed here and elsewhere are supportive of a strong,
teachers have a sufficient amount of effective professional knowledge-based, curriculum approach to school reform
development and support needed to implement the model that focuses on the knowledge to be learned in the form of
with fidelity, and (c) classrooms have adequate resources the structural properties of a grade-level articulated and
(e.g., non-fiction trade books). The elements of core- concept-oriented curricular framework (Achieve,
effectiveness were continually assessed throughout the 2013; Schmidt, et al, 1999) as the foundation for
duration of the research study using direct observations and accelerating the rate and depth of student academic
validated instrumentation. expectations. In particular, the idea of knowledge-based
instruction provides an operational mechanism for achieving
Multi-Year Research Findings such student achievement outcomes. Within such a
Table 1 overviews the series of student achievement knowledge-based framework, a variety of instructional
outcomes associated with implementation of the Science dynamics (e.g., focus on core concepts and concept
IDEAS model reported in the literature and other relationships, effective use of examples to gain conceptual
professional outlets from 1992 through 2014. The research understanding, representation of the organizational structure
completed from 1992 through 1998 consisted of a series of of concepts and concept relationships learned, and the
studies conducted in authentic school settings, typically over explicit interplay in a cumulative learning environment
a school year. While the earlier studies were conducted in a between review and accessing of prior knowledge required
variety of classrooms, the studies from 2002 through 2007 for learning) can be used to make classroom instruction
consisted of school-wide implementation across grades 3-5. more optimal in terms of engendering student learning
Finally, complementing prior work in grades 3-5, the mastery that results in greater reading comprehension
research involving the model was extended to grades 1-2. proficiency.
A major conclusion from the multi-year pattern of The interdisciplinary perspectives presented in this paper
findings shown in Table 1 is that Science IDEAS has been have significant implications for the pursuit of reform of
consistently effective in accelerating student achievement in reading comprehension instruction by educational
both science and reading in grades 3-4-5. In addition, the practitioners. Overall, the idea of knowledge-based
longitudinal findings shown in Table 1 provide strong instruction in conjunction with a concept-focused
evidence in support of a positive transfer effect of grade 3-5 curriculum provide a framework that would establish any
Science IDEAS intervention on student science and reading systemic reform initiative as “curriculum-based”. Moreover,
achievement in grades 6-8. Of importance in interpreting in operation, such a curricular framework would provide the
these findings is that the magnitude of the effects expressed degree of structure that is necessary (a) to insure that the
in grade equivalents on nationally-normed tests (ITBS, forms of instruction used result in cumulative, meaningful
SAT, MAT) is educationally meaningful (Table 1, Note 1). learning and (b) to insure that the methodological
Because in grades 3-4-5 Science IDEAS replaces regular innovations for reform evaluation would result in improved
traditional reading instruction, the effectiveness of the reading comprehension
Science IDEAS model which emphasizes in-depth,
cumulative, conceptual learning offers major implications Acknowledgments
for rethinking and reconfiguring curricular policy at the This paper was supported by a grant from the National
upper elementary levels and for increasing the instructional Science Foundation (Project REC02288353) to Florida
time for an interdisciplinary approach to science instruction Atlantic University.
in which reading and writing are inextricably linked to
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