=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1419/paper0033
|storemode=property
|title=The Emergence of Color Categories: Variance and Invariance
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1419/paper0033.pdf
|volume=Vol-1419
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/eapcogsci/RongaB15
}}
==The Emergence of Color Categories: Variance and Invariance==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1419/paper0033.pdf
The emergence of color categories: Variance and invariance
Irene Ronga (irene.ronga@unito.it)
Department of Psychology, University of Turin
Via Po, 14, 10123 Torino Italy
Carla Bazzanella (carla.bazzanella@unito.it)
Department of Philosophy and Educational Sciences, University of Turin
Via Sant’Ottavio, 20, 10124 Torino Italy
Abstract stable in time (Brainard, 2004; Kandel, Schwartz, &
Jessel, 2000). This phenomenon, known as chromatic
Color is a crucial feature for object detection and constancy (for a literature review and presentation of
recognition. This is why the human visual system constantly recent findings, please refer to Kingdom, Angelucci, &
attempts to keep variations in perceived object colors to a Clifford, 2014; Werner, 2014), is obtained by a number of
minimum. It seems, however, that color categorization is
more dynamic and flexible. In the present paper, by
neural processes, mainly based on the examination of
reviewing recent research, we discuss the emergence and ‘scenes’ related to specific contexts (a common notion in
establishment of color categories in language as a result of cognitive linguistics, cf. Bazzanella, 2014; Ungerer &
various intertwined factors playing together at different Schmid, 1996). Chromatic constancy is an essential
levels. We claim for an integrative approach that supersedes mechanism of vision, since it allows us to rely on color
the rigid dichotomy between universalistic and relativistic appearances for object recognition, independently of
perspectives, according to which color categorization is varying light conditions.
influenced by universal cognitive trends, specific socio-
cultural factors, and diverse language uses, such as idioms,
Even though the human visual system makes systematic
which trigger different values in context. attempts to keep variations in perceived object colors to a
minimum, color categorization and especially
Keywords: color spectrum; categorization; basic color lexicalization appear to be dynamic rather than stable in
terms; culture; language use
time and space. In other words, color categories are not
fixed entities, merely mirroring physical discrimination,
Introduction: Color perception and color present in the outside world. On the contrary, they emerge
categorization from the active interaction between humans and the
The world we live in is colorful. Color is an extremely external environment, that is, from their embodiment
important feature that has been demonstrated to facilitate (Bazzanella, 2014; Gibbs 2005, Puglisi, Baronchelli, &
object detection and recognition (among others, Loreto, 2008), and appear to be modified by geographical
Gegenfurtner & Rieger, 2000; Martinovic, Gruber, & and cultural specificities (among others, Wierzbicka,
Müller, 2014), and improve the memorization of natural 2008).
scenes (Spence, Wong, Rusan, & Rastegar, 2006). Color categorization and chromatic lexicon are
However, a fundamental question, often posed and traditionally part of the persistent debate on universalism
discussed by philosophers, psychologists, linguists, vs. relativism (Bazzanella, 2014; Taylor, 2003).
anthropologists, and artists, is still being asked: To what From the universalistic perspective, Berlin & Kay (1969)
extent can color be considered as a feature of the external first presented the hypothesis of a common trend of color
world? Or instead, is it to be regarded as a simple categorization, proposing their implicational hierarchy
construction of the mind? composed of eleven basic color terms: white, black < red <
In Newton’s seminal work (1704) on color perception, green, yellow < blue < brown < pink, grey, orange, and
Optics, it was observed that, strictly speaking, light purple. In the following years, their initial assumption was
radiation has no color: it has only the capability and supported by further experimental observation and partly
predisposition to induce specific chromatic sensations. In revised (Kay, Berlin, Maffi, & Merrifield, 1997; Kay &
other words, color cannot be considered as a physical Maffi, 1999, 2005; Cook, Kay, & Regier, 2005; Kay &
property of the world, like, for example, gravity. Regier, 2006; Kay, in press). However, the original idea of
Partially divergent explanations of color vision, the presence of a universal pattern regulating the
highlighting either the mind role or the influence of the emergence of color categories has mainly been preserved.
physical, outside world, are presented in the literature From the relativistic viewpoint, several scholars have
according to different disciplinary perspectives. Following pointed out the pivotal influence produced by social,
Zeki’s approach (1999), we consider color as a property of cultural, and linguistic factors on the categorization
the brain, though dependent upon physical light radiation. process (among others, Casson, 1997; Cook et al. 2005;
Importantly, even though light conditions change during McNeill, 1972; Wierzbicka, 2008). As Sapir (1949, 27)
the day and throughout different periods of the year, the claims: “Distinctions which seem inevitable to us may be
color perception of objects does not vary, but appears utterly ignored in languages which reflect an entirely
222
different type of culture, while these in turn insist on categorization system progressively replaced a more
distinctions which are all but unintelligible to us”. traditional system, derived from the natural pigments used
Interestingly, recent research suggests an approach that to dye fabrics and based only on three-color
combines universal trends and cultural-specific factors categorizations (namely akane corresponding to a hue
(Cruz & Plebe, 2013; Regier & Kay, 2009). In accordance between orange and red, hanada a turquoise blue, and
with previous studies (Bazzanella, Salvati, Ronga, 2012; kariyasu yellow).
Ronga, 2009; Ronga, Bazzanella, Strudsholm, Salvati, From a diatopical perspective, the number of categories of
2014), here we adopt an integrative framework, which, in basic colors varies in different languages. For example,
considering both common trends and cultural specificity (§ Dani (a people of Western New Guinea) have only two
The emergence of color categories, focal colors, and basic color categories. On the contrary, most European
interlinguistic variability), refers also to socio-cultural- languages have at least eleven color categories
historical parameters and the use of a given color term (§ (corresponding to the number of focal colors listed by
Socio-cultural aspects in the history of the BLUE category Berlin & Kay, 1969). However, publications related to the
in Europe and the use of azzurro in Italian). Both of these World Color Survey (among others, Kay & Maffi, 2005)
aspects are relevant to the discussion on color categories have pointed out that over half the languages in the world
and their dynamic processes (§ Color and typical express only one color term for the GREEN and BLUE
exemplars: Universalism and relativism). categories (the so-called GRUE languages; see also
Walter, 2011), thus possessing ten out of the eleven color
categories.
The emergence of color categories, focal
colors, and interlinguistic variability The categorization of the BLUE spectrum: An
exception to Berlin & Kay’s pattern
Categorizing is a complex and flexible process that is
grounded in the brain as an essential property of human It is interesting to note that some European languages can
cognition. It is dependent on context and culture (among be considered an exception to the Berlin & Kay pattern of
others, Barsalou, 2008; Bazzanella, 2014; Cohen & categorization, since they have more than eleven color
Lefebvre, 2005; Smith, 2005), and characterized by categories, even if Berlin & Kay’s following criteria are
emergence, that is, dynamic interaction between various used to evaluate the basicness of a color term:
components, as well as between organisms and their (i) Monolexemic.
environment (Clark, 1997). (ii) Its signification must not be included in that of any other
colour term.
The categorization of color and its lexicalization in world
(iii) Its application must not be restricted to a narrow class of
languages is faced with the contrast between continuity of objects (eg., blonde).
the spectrum and linguistic segmentation, and alternates (iv) It must be psychologically salient for informants.
between universalistic and relativistic perspectives. From a (v) The doubtful cases should have the same distributional
perceptual point of view, Berlin & Kay (1969) showed potential as the previously established basic terms (cf. Berlin &
that, even though category borders may be fuzzy and not Kay, 1999 [1969]: 6-7).
invariably defined in different languages, the centers of For example, previous linguistic research suggested that
color categories (i.e., focal colors) are not subject to Czech may have two basic color terms describing the RED
interlinguistic variability. This evidence has been spectrum: cervená and rudá (Nagel, 2000, in Uusküla,
repeatedly validated by subsequent studies (Taylor, 2003). 2008). However, Uusküla (2008) did not confirm this
On the contrary, from a linguistic point of view, color hypothesis, suggesting that rudá cannot be considered as a
lexica show both diachronical and diatopical variability. basic color term.
Considering European languages, categorizing criteria With regard to the BLUE spectrum, the English BLUE
drastically changed in Ancient Greek and Latin, on the one category is often split into two or three color words,
hand, and Romance languages, on the other (among competing for the status of basic color terms: Italian,
others, Capell, 1966; Lyons, 2003). Latin and Ancient Catalan, Arabic, Turkish, Modern Greek, Maltese,
Greek mainly distinguished between high and low Russian, Hungarian, Kashubian, Ukrainian, Belarusian,
luminosity (Garcea, 2003; Bradley, 2009), whereas Lithuanian, and Udmurt (an Uralic language) have twelve
Romance languages have focused more accurately on hue or thirteen color categories, since they all present further
discrimination (Grossmann, 1988; Pastoureau, 2002). segmentations of the BLUE domain (among others, Al
Profound modifications of the color categorization system Rasheed et al., 2011; Borg, 2011; Ronga, 2009;
may be observed even in relatively recent times, as Winawaver et al., 2007).
demonstrated by the case of Japanese, presented by Russian divides the BLUE domain into two different
McNeill (1972). Nowadays, mainly because of the terms, goluboy vs. siniy. Importantly, according to various
influence of Anglophone culture and the adoption of scholars, these two color terms represent two independent
synthetic dyes, Japanese has a standard 11-category basic categories (Winawer et al., 2007; Paramei, 2005,
system of colors (Berlin & Kay, 1969). However, McNeill 2007). Modern Greek seems to have a similar category
showed that during the nineteenth century, the present
223
system, since it distinguishes between µπλε [blé] ‘blue’ teams. The case of azzurro is interesting with regard to the
and γαλάζιο [γalázjo] ‘light blue’ (Borg, 2011). relevance of the socio-cultural and historical aspects in
The picture of Italian blues appears even more color lexicalization. Azzurro, indeed, is found to occur
complicated. Italian uses three different color terms to more frequently than blu in the ItWaC (Baroni, Bernardini,
lexicalize the BLUE spectrum: blu, more or less Ferraresi, & Zanchetta, 2009): azzurro has 45159
corresponding to ‘dark blue’ in English; azzurro, occurrences, blu 62554. In addition, it is often associated
indicating a middle blue; and celeste, corresponding to the with a positive connotation. An example of the preference
English ‘light blue’ (Paramei & Menegaz, 2013; Uusküla, for azzurro rather than blu when a positive connotation is
2014). While there is no complete agreement in the implied is Principe Azzurro, corresponding to Prince
literature on the basicness of celeste, both blu and azzurro Charming (other examples can be found in Ronga et al.,
are almost unanimously considered basic color terms in 2014). Interestingly, some English expressions including
recent research work (Paggetti et al., 2011; Paggetti & blue (present both in British and American English) are
Menegaz, 2012, 2013; Paggetti, Menegaz, & Paramei, used in Italian as well, but are expressed by azzurro, such
2015; Paramei & Menegaz, 2013; Ronga, 2009; Sandford, as balenottera azzurra ‘blue whale’, alghe azzure ‘blue
2012; Uusküla, 2014; Valdegamberi et al., 2012). algae’.
The specific categorization of color expressed in European Within a relativistic perspective, social-cultural and
languages seems to be influenced by historical and cultural historical factors are frequently considered in the
factors, such as the history of Malta together with Arabic explanation of the interlinguistic variability of color
and Italian influences on its color system (Borg, 2011), categorization (McNeill, 1972; Pastoureau, 2000; Taylor,
trade deriving from the use of natural pigments, and the 2003), while the frequency of color terms, which is strictly
development of textile manufacture (Casson, 1997; related to their saliency (as in the case of azzurro), is
Pastoureau, 2000; Ronga, 2009). rarely taken into account.
Interestingly, Italian can be considered as a paradigmatic
case of the close intertwinement between universal trends Color and typical exemplars: Universalism
and cultural-specific aspects. and relativism
When searching for idioms containing basic color terms in
linguistic corpora, we often find expressions such as blue
Socio-cultural aspects in the history of the BLUE
as the sky, or red as a strawberry.
category in Europe and the use of azzurro in
Color categories, due to perceptive vagueness and
Italian language indeterminacy (Taylor, 2003; Bazzanella, 2011,
According to several scholars, the Romans did not think of 2014), are subjected to fuzziness, in the sense that category
BLUE as a real basic category, but simply as a black hue boundaries are not precisely defined, and the use of
(Garcea, 2003; Grossman, 1988; Pastoureau, 2000). It was chromatic lexicon may vary in time and space in a
only after the fall of the Roman Empire that a separate complex intertwinement of language use, together with
blue category finally appeared in Europe. During the socio-cultural and historical factors.
Middle Ages, in explicit contrast with Latin tradition and This is one reason why color terms are often associated
paganism, the Catholic Church decided to adopt blue as with natural or artificial referents (i.e., typical exemplars,
the colour of the Virgin Mary and Christian renovation. As as in the expression white as snow). It should be
a sign of devotion to the Catholic Church during the underlined that, even though, at a perceptual level, focal
thirteenth century, blue became the colour of the French colors are not subject to diatopical variability (Kay, in
monarchy (that is, royal blue; Pastoureau, 2000). press; Kay & Maffi, 2005), referents indicating the focal
From a conceptual-linguistic point of view, the social blue point of the category are not always shared by different
revolution was paralleled by an evolution of the classical languages (Ronga et al., 2014).
color categorization system. As a categorical hyperonym, Within a multifaceted project on color categories, lexicon,
north-west European languages such as French and and interlinguistic variability (Bazzanella et al., 2012;
German adopted the Germanic root *blawa, whereas south Ronga et al., 2014), we collected introspective and corpus
European languages (such as Spanish and Portuguese) the data on color terms, color-related idiomatic expressions,
Persian-Arabic root lāzward. proverbs, and typical exemplars associated with color
Italian, which lies on the border between northern and terms. Introspective data were obtained through written
southern Europe, maintained both Germanic and Persian- questionnaires administrated to 103 Italian, 38 Chinese,
Arabic roots, thus lexicalizing two basic color terms for and 25 Danish participants. The questionnaires were
the blue SPECTRUM, blu and azzurro, together with a composed of four parts:
third, marginal competitor, celeste (Ronga, 2009; Ronga et i) a color-term list task (subjects had to list as many colors
al., 2014; Uusküla, 2014). as possible);
Azzurro was the symbolic color of the Savoy dynasty (i.e., ii) a free-association task (participants had to associate
the Italian royal family after the Italian unification in each basic color term with objects or concepts that
1861) and nowadays it connotes the Italian national sport
224
typically characterized the color (such as, snow for white, diverse aspects of the very same object at different
sky for blue, or passion for red in English); moments, according to prior knowledge or the specific
iii) a proverb task and an idiom task (subjects had to list context.
all the color-related idioms and expressions they could Regier & Kay (2009: 444), referring to the possible
remember; for further details about the methodology, integration between universalistic trends and the influence
please refer to Ronga et al., 2014). of culturally specific aspects, have claimed that the role of
The occurrence of basic color terms in idiomatic (such as social forces in the modulation of universal categorization
a white lie) and comparative color-based expressions (such patterns is still unclear.
as red as a lobster or white as wool) were manually With the present paper, we have aimed to find the active
examined, collected, and analysed in four large-scale link between universalistic trends and relativistic aspects
corpora (ItWaC and ItTenTen for Italian, UkWaC for of color categorization.
British English, KorpusDK for Danish; Bazzanella et al., On the one hand, universalistic patterns of color
2012; Ronga et al. 2014; Strudsholm, Ronga, & categorization cannot be denied. On the other, socio-
Bazzanella, accepted). cultural and historical parameters appear to be relevant at
Overall, our data indicate that in all the examined each level of color categorization and lexicalization, in the
languages, the typical exemplars most commonly shaping of basic terms, in the selection of typical
associated with color words in idiomatic and comparative exemplars, and in the variety and richness of hue terms
expressions are natural referents (e.g., blood, sky, night, that distinguish perception and diverse language use.
snow, milk, grass; for quantitative analyses, please refer to
Ronga et al., 2014, Bazzanella et al., 2012, Strudsholm et
al., accepted). Conclusion: Category emergence as a
For instance, British English, Danish, and Italian share the dynamic process
expression red as blood, rød som blod, rosso come il
In a very elegant paper using the neuro-imaging technique
sangue, which is grounded on a very salient natural
of visual-evoked potentials, Thierry et al. (2009)
referent.
demonstrated that the presence of a given color category in
English, Danish, and Italian have the very same proverb
a lexicon is able to influence the perceptual processing of
(with the same idiomatic meaning) referring to the
the corresponding color. As stated above (§ The
greenness of grass: The grass is always greener on the
categorization of the BLUE spectrum: An exception to
other side, Naboens græs er altid grønnere, L’erba del
Berlin and Kay’s pattern), Modern Greek split the BLUE
vicino è sempre più verde. Even Chinese and Italian have
spectrum into two color terms, one corresponding to light
similar idiomatic expressions referring to the weather as
blue and the other to dark blue. Thierry et al. (2009)
well as sky and cloud colors (Bazzanella et al., 2012).
showed that native speakers of Greek were able to
On the contrary, some associations appear related to
distinguish light blue from dark blue faster and better than
environmental specificity. While in Italian rosso come un
native English speakers.
pomodoro ‘red as a tomato’ is widespread, in British
Interestingly, Zhou et al. (2010) showed that a similar
English it is pretty rare, while red as a beetroot is much
influence on perceptual color discrimination might be
more common (UkWaC corpus; Ronga et al. 2014). In
obtained even with artificially learned lexical categories
both Italian and Brtish English we find expressions such as
that are not present in subjects’ native idioms. In the first
blue as the sky; however, while in Italian the sea is
part of the experiment, subjects were asked to distinguish
frequently associated with azzurro or blu (‘blue’), in
between two hues, both referring to the same term in their
British English, the North Sea is associated with grey
native language. In the second part of the experiment,
(ItWaC, ItTenTen, and UkWaC corpora; Ronga et al.,
subjects were trained to perceive a new linguistic color
2014).
category, so that the two hues no longer referred to the
Overall, the associations between color terms and typical
same term. After the training, subjects resulted to be faster
exemplars encompass universal trends (such as the
and better in the hue discrimination task.
salience of some natural referents) and relative aspects.
These findings are relevant for two reasons. First, these
Noteworthy is also the fact that there are oscillations in
experiments demonstrated how linguistic categorization
selecting relevant associations, possibly in relation to the
may modulate perception, thus showing a complex pattern
vagueness of the referent itself: very often objects such as
of reciprocal influence between perception, conceptual
the sea or different kinds of fruit and vegetables are not
categories, and language (see also Gong, Shuai, & Wu,
constant in their ‘typical’ colors. On the contrary, their
2013). Second, and more importantly, these findings
chromatic appearance may differ quite drastically in
highlight the extreme dynamism of the color
different periods of the year, from day to day, or in
categorization process. Color categories appear to be
different moments of the same day, depending on the light
significantly flexible (Lalumera 2013), and able to emerge
and other external conditions (as in the ripening state of
and adapt very fast, in accordance with the entire pattern
fruit and vegetables). The vagueness of referents allows
of contextual features, meant either as global, a priori, or
speakers to focus on different features, highlighting
225
local parameters, activated by single interactions (Akman Cohen, H., & Lefebvre, C. (Eds.) (2005). Categorization
& Bazzanella, 2003). in cognitive science. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Cook, R., Kay, P., & Regier, T. (2005). The world color
survey database: History and use. In H. Cohen & C.
Acknowledgments Lefebvre (Eds.), Handbook of categorization in
cognitive science (pp. 223–242). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
We warmly thank Susan Eerdmans for the revision of
Cruz, V.M., & Plebe, A. (2013). Too many exceptions to
previous versions of the present manuscript. The project
the rule(s)?, RIFL, 7, 29-44.
has been partially supported by funds from the University Garcea, A. (2003). Gellio, il bilinguismo greco-latino e i
of Turin (Italy), year 2012. nomi dei colori. In R. Oniga (Ed.), Il plurilinguismo
nella tradizione letteraria latina (pp. 173-198). Roma:
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