=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1419/paper0099
|storemode=property
|title=Children with High Perspective-Taking Ability Prefer Sad Music
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1419/paper0099.pdf
|volume=Vol-1419
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/eapcogsci/KawakamiKA15
}}
==Children with High Perspective-Taking Ability Prefer Sad Music==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1419/paper0099.pdf
Children with High Perspective-Taking Ability Prefer Sad Music
Ai Kawakami (amour.kawakami@gmail.com)
Brain Science Institute, 6-1-1 Tamagawa-gakuen, Machida, 194-0041, JAPAN
Kenji Katahira (k.katahira@kwansei.ac.jp)
School of Science and Technology, 2-1 Gakuen Sanda, 669-1337, JAPAN
Minoru Asada (asada@ams.eng.osaka-u.ac.jp)
Graduate School of Engineering, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, 565-0871, JAPAN
Abstract
Lipps applied the idea of einfühlung to the aesthetics of
visual form (Currie, 2011). For Lipps, einfühlung meant that
Why do we listen to sad music? One reason could be that it projecting oneself into a perceived object is the only way in
generates pleasant emotions as well as sadness. Accordingly, which one may appreciate certain aesthetical aspects of that
it is necessary to determine what kind of person experiences object (Wispé, 1987). Although today we do not consider
pleasant affect by listening to sad music. In the current study,
we focused on empathy as a personal trait and examined the
empathy to be a way in which we understand inanimate
relationship between trait empathy and emotional response, objects, discussion of empathy in the context of non-human
including liking for the sad music. We targeted children objects would have been natural at that time (Currie, 2011).
because we considered that this age group is appropriate to Later, Lipps (1905) extended his usage of einfühlung
highlight individual differences in empathy. Our findings beyond aesthetic appreciation to explain how a person
indicated that perspective-taking ability, a sub-component of understands the consciousness of others. Thus, the target of
trait empathy, was correlated with emotional responses to the einfühlung expanded from aesthetic objects to people
sad music. In addition, children who experienced pleasant
emotions preferred sad music. (Chismar, 1988). Titchener (1909) borrowed Lipps’s notion
of einfühlung, and translated it as “empathy” via the Greek
Keywords: sad music; empathy; pleasant emotion; liking sad word “empatheia,” which means either “in suffering” or “in
music; perspective-taking ability; Grade 6 elementary school passion” (en + pathos). This was the first usage of the term
children
“empathy.” Subsequently, the concept of empathy was
borrowed by many personality theorists during the 1930s
Introduction and by psychotherapists during the 1950s. At present, social
and developmental psychologists use empathy to explain
Among the many current definitions of empathy, a altruistic behavior (Wispé, 1987).
common casual definition of empathy is “sharing the
Considering the way in which the term “empathy”
perceived emotion of another” (Eisenberg & Strayer, 1987). emerged, we predicted that empathic ability would be
This kind of empathy was first introduced by Lipps (1903; associated with aesthetic emotional experience. This
1905) and this is typically considered the origin of the term suggests that emotion in art, not just in interpersonal
(Wispé, 1987). Of note, however, is that Lipps did not contexts, should be examined from the perspective of
initially include the interpersonal context in his use of the empathic ability. In line with this, Garrido and Schubert
term. In fact, the concept that he adopted was “einfühlung,” (2011), and Vuoskoski, Thompson, Mcilwain, and Eerola
which evolved from German aesthetics, and was used to (2012) showed that in adults, there was a positive
discuss aesthetic cognition. It is, therefore, surprising that, correlation between trait levels of empathic concern and the
in contrast, the modern usage of the concept of empathy is degree to which they liked sad music. One of the reasons
nearly always reserved for interpersonal contexts. that people like sad music could be a pleasure that is
Additionally, the original concept of einfühlung emerged induced by sad music. In fact, sad music provokes pleasant
from the study of aesthetics, rather than the field of social emotions as well as sadness in listeners (Kawakami, 2013;
human interaction. Kawakami et al., 2013a; Kawakami et al., 2013b;
The German word einfühlung literally translates as “feel Kawakami et al., 2014). However it has been unclear what
into” in English, and is derived from the verb meaning “to kind of person experiences pleasant affect by listening to the
feel oneself in something” (Lee, 1913). According to Wind sad music. So to speak, the relationship between trait
(1963), the term einfühlung was initially used by Vischer in empathy and pleasant emotion generated by the sad music
1873. Vischer considered that one must project oneself into remains unknown.
the object to appreciate its aesthetics. Subsequently, the idea The concept of empathy also includes cognitive aspects
of einfühlung spread widely throughout aesthetics research (Borke, 1971, 1973; Buckley, Siegel, & Ness, 1979;
by the late nineteenth century (Wispé, 1987). During this Deutsch & Madle, 1975; Greenspan, Barenboim, &
time, Lipps (1897) and Wundt (1903) both adopted Chandler, 1976). Therefore, in line with Hoffman’s (1987)
einfühlung into their respective psychological terminologies suggested relationship between the development and
and furthered its usage in this context (Lee, 1913). properties of empathy, the ability to be empathetic would be
transformed depending on the degree of development of
599
cognitive ability. Childhood represents the developmental others, PT assesses the tendency to spontaneously adopt the
stage during which empathy emerges; we therefore psychological point of view of others, PD measures self-
predicted that studying this age group would highlight oriented feelings of personal anxiety and unease in tense
individual differences in empathy and allow us to examine interpersonal settings, and FS taps respondents’ tendencies
its influence. to transpose themselves imaginatively into the feelings and
Hence, we examined whether the trait of empathy was actions of fictitious characters in books, movies, and plays.
positively related to pleasant emotion as well as liking for
sad music in children. If there was such a relationship, we Emotional State Scale. This is a self-report scale
aimed to clarify that what kind of trait empathy contributes consisting of 50 emotion-related descriptive words and
to pleasure and liking for sad music. In particular, we phrases that are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all)
examined the mediation effect of the emotional responses to 5 (very much). After listening to each musical stimulus,
linking trait empathy to liking for sad music. Our children were asked to rate their emotional state using this
hypothetical model suggests that sub-components of trait scale. The descriptive words and phrases were almost the
empathy were differently associated with varying emotional same as the ones we used in a previous study (Kawakami et
responses to sad music, and indirectly affect liking for such al., 2013b), with some alterations because the participants in
music. We conducted an experiment in which participants’ the present study were children. Before creating the
emotional responses to sad music and trait empathy were questionnaire, we consulted a music teacher at an
subjectively assessed. elementary school to ensure that children could understand
and answer the words and phrases.
Method Procedure
The experiments were conducted in a music class at the
Participants elementary school. The children listened to music coming
Participants were 42 female children and 43 male from a pair of speakers and engaged in two kinds of tasks.
children who were enrolled in Grade 6 at an elementary First, the participants were asked to report their own
school in Japan. The mean age of the participants was 11.9 emotional state (including their liking for the music) after
years (SD = 0.32). listening to each music stimulus, on a scale of 1 (not at all)
to 5 (very much). Before rating their emotional states in the
Materials formal experiment, children completed two practice sessions.
For the practice trials, we used two short excerpts of music
Musical Stimuli. Excerpts from the following two
(approximately 15 s) that were different from the music
musical pieces were used: (1) Glinka’s La Separation (F
stimuli used in the rating task. On the basis of the music
minor), played at quarter note = 80; and (2) Granados’s
teacher’s advice, we did not distribute the emotional state
Allegro de Concierto (G minor), played at quarter note = 70.
questionnaire until after we had played the music, so that the
We also used these pieces in an earlier study (Kawakami et
children could focus on the music. After all of the students
al., 2013b).
had answered the questionnaire for the first music stimulus,
The sound level of the music excerpts ranged from
we collected the questionnaire papers and then played the
58.4dB (C) to 72.5 dB (C) for Allegro de Concierto (G
next music stimulus.
minor), and from 46.5 dB (C) to 70.5 dB (C) for La
After the rating task was completed, participants
Separation (F minor). Both music excerpts lasted
answered the IRI. We explained to the children that these
approximately 30 s.
questionnaires were not associated with their academic
results, and that there was no correct answer. We did not ask
Interpersonal Reactivity Index Scale. The modified
the children to write their name on their questionnaires
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) for use with children,
because we wanted to obtain honest answers. Though
developed by Hasegawa et al. (2009), was used to measure
children did not write their names on both emotional state
the participants’ trait empathy. Hasegawa et al. (2009)
and IRI questionnaires, we numbered the questionnaires and
translated Davis’s (1980) original IRI into Japanese and
children sat on the same seat throughout the study; therefore,
modified it so that children could understand and answer the
we could match the two questionnaires.
items. Since Hasegawa et al. (2009) recommended that this
scale be used with children older than Grade 4, the Grade 6 Statistical Analysis
students who participated in our research were considered
mature enough to answer the scale. The modified IRI scale
First, the relationship between trait empathy and liking
for children contains 30 items, representing four sub- for sad music was examined. In addition, in consideration of
components of trait empathy (Empathic Concern (EC): the correlations among IRI sub-components, partial
seven items; Perspective Taking (PT): nine items; Personal correlations with liking for sad music were investigated for
Distress (PD): seven items; and Fantasy (FS): seven items). each sub-component. Second, a factor analysis was
According to Davis (1980; 1983), EC assesses other- performed on the data from the emotional state scale to
oriented feelings of sympathy and concern for unfortunate determine possible factors underlying participants’
600
emotional responses to the music stimuli. The relationships Table 2: Partial Correlation Coefficients among Empathy
among the identified factors and the study variables were Sub-Components and Liking for Sad Music.
examined. All of the above statistical analyses were
completed using IBM SPSS Version 22. Finally, path
analyses were conducted to evaluate the model proposed in
the present study and to test the hypothesis that sub- Liking
components of trait empathy influence liking for sad music
through emotional responses to music. The path analyses EC .04
were performed using IBM AMOS Version 22 with
maximum likelihood estimation. Model solutions were PD -.11
assessed using the following fit indices: chi-square, adjusted PT .04
goodness of fit index (AGFI), comparative fit index (CFI),
and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). FS .14
Results Emotional Responses to Music
Factor analysis, using the principal factor method with
Influence of Empathy on Liking for Sad Music promax rotation, was performed on the responses of the 85
Correlation analyses were performed to investigate the participants to the two musical stimuli (N = 170 responses)
influence of trait empathy on liking for sad music. to identify the underlying structure of the 50 items of the
Participants’ global empathy scores were calculated by emotional state scale. A three-factor solution explaining
averaging the ratings of all IRI items. The scores for the 53.95% of the total variance was revealed.
sub-components of trait empathy were calculated as
The 50 emotion-related descriptive words and phrases
averaged ratings of items representing each sub-component. with their corresponding factor loadings are reported in
Liking assessments for the two music excerpts were Table 3. Twenty-seven words and phrases, such as tender,
averaged for each participant to obtain an overall liking fascinated, and peaceful, were included in Factor 1, “Sweet
score. Emotion.” Ten other words and phrases, such as sad, lonely,
Global empathy and two sub-components of trait and gloomy, were included in Factor 2, “Tragic Emotion.”
empathy (PT and FS) demonstrated significant correlations In the third factor, “Heightened Emotion,” there were eight
with liking for sad music (Table 1). Further, there were words and phrases, such as panache, restless, and strong.
correlations among some of the sub-components of trait
empathy. Therefore, partial correlation analyses were
performed to assess the association between each sub- Model Testing
component and liking for sad music, controlling for the
Path analyses were performed to test the proposed
effects of the other sub-components (Table 2). There was no relationship between trait empathy and liking for sad music.
significant association between any sub-component of trait The model showed that the indirect effects of the sub-
empathy and liking for sad music. components of trait empathy on liking for sad music were
mediated by the emotional response to music.
Figure 1 shows the final model including standardized
regression weights. The fit indices were as follows: the chi-
Table 1: Correlations among Variables. square value was not significant, indicating that the
modified model was consistent with the data, and the AGFI
Liking EC PD PT FS Global (.905), CFI (1.000) and RMSEA (.000) were also acceptable.
Liking −
Path analysis indicated that some sub-components of trait
EC .20 − empathy were associated with emotional responses to the
PD -.04 .21* − music stimuli, which were then associated with liking for
PT .26* .79** .11 − sad music. Regarding the relationships among the sub-
components of trait empathy and emotional responses, only
FS .25* .48** .30** .66** −
PT demonstrated an effect on emotional responses, in that it
Global .23* − − − − − was positively associated with all three emotional response
*= p < .05, ** = p < .01 factors. Additionally, sweet emotion and heightened
*
emotion were positively associated with liking for sad music.
Though non-significant, the positive effect of PD on tragic
emotion and the negative effect of FS on sweet emotion
contributed to the amount of variance explained within the
model.
601
Table 3: Factor Analysis of Emotional Responses to
Music.
Emotion-related items Factor1 Factor2 Factor3
Tender .944 .019 -.211
Fascinated .941 .056 -.176
Peaceful .939 .054 -.299
Serene .925 .039 -.169
Feel easy .904 .143 -.224
Relaxed .883 .077 -.104
Tranquil .852 .042 .017
Heartwarming .810 -.051 .071
Figure 1: Path analysis of the modified model.
Warm feeling .794 -.090 .038
With the exception of R2 values, all values are
Dreamy .777 .030 .120
standardized regression weights. Dashed lines indicate non-
Familiar ease .772 .196 -.008
significant associations.
State of lightness .740 -.091 .010
Refreshing .705 -.172 .131
Nostalgic .704 .064 -.158
Happy .697 -.175 .172
Discussion
Soothed .687 .235 .010
Generous .666 .189 -.016
Gorgeous .658 -.076 .018
Influence of Trait Empathy on Liking for Sad
Animated .648 .106 .240 Music
Shining .647 -.023 .297
Previous studies found that trait empathy was associated
Joyful .635 -.196 .274 with liking for sad music. For example, Garrido and
Amused .597 -.207 .280 Schubert (2011) showed a correlation between EC and
Cheerful .566 -.253 .283 liking for sad music. Vuoskoski et al. (2012) suggested that
Blithe .540 -.061 .231 the degree of liking for sad music was correlated with EC,
Yearning .534 .155 .239 FS, and global empathy. In line with previous studies, we
Feel like dancing .533 .030 .137 found that liking for sad music was significantly correlated
Lively .473 -.231 .423 with global empathy (r(85) = .23, p < .05) but its
Sad .075 .840 -.192 relationship with EC was only marginally significant (r(85)
Lonely .203 .784 -.197 = .20, p = .067). Furthermore, liking for sad music was
Gloomy .033 .703 .117 significantly correlated with both FS (r(85) = .25, p < .05)
Cold .060 .697 .200 and PT (r(85) = .26, p < .05). Previous research did not find
Disconsolate -.231 .686 .009 an association between PT and liking for sad music. The age
Fear -.244 .674 .283 of the present sample might have affected the results.
Weird feeling -.160 .674 .318 Notably, participants in the experiments of both Garrido and
Heavy -.129 .654 .181 Schubert (2011) and Vuoskoski et al. (2012) were adults,
Weak .069 .636 -.051 while ours were Grade 6 elementary school children. The
Fearful -.188 .584 .315 difference in age might account for the differences that
Panache -.017 -.059 .670 emerged in how trait empathy is correlated with liking for
Restless -.262 .277 .663 sad music.
Strong .190 .087 .582
Bouncy .463 -.137 .489
Filled with wonder .083 .285 .461 The Model of Trait Empathy and Liking for Sad
Leap .027 .393 .455 Music through Emotional Responses to Music
Lofty .278 .192 .439
Path analysis of the modified model showed that the
Jocular .167 .351 .364 indirect effects of the sub-components of trait empathy on
Correlations among factors Factor1 Factor2 Factor3 liking for sad music were mediated by the emotional
Factor 1 - -.189 .411 response to music. That is, we clarified that PT affected
Factor2 - .052 liking for sad music indirectly, mediated by one’s emotional
Factor3 - response to the music (Figure 1). Our findings demonstrated
that children with high perspective-taking ability tended to
experience ambivalent emotions, such as a combination of
sweet and tragic emotions, as well as heightened emotions.
602
In addition, particularly pleasant emotions like sweet and responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
heightened emotions contributed to a preference for sad 61, 459-470.
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Acknowledgments Hasegawa, M., Horiuchi, Y., Suzuki, K., Sado, M.,
We thank the elementary school that allowed us to Sakamoto, A. (2009). Reliability and validity of
conduct our research with their students. We also multidimensional empathy scale for children. The
acknowledge the considerable assistance provided by Ms. Japanese journal of personality, 17, 307-310.
Endo, music teacher, and Ms. Oshimura and Ms. Maeda, Hoffman, M.L. (1987). The contribution of empathy to
coordinators at the elementary school. This work was justice and moral judgment. In N. Eisenberg, & J. Strayer
supported by JSPS KAKENHI under grant numbers (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 47-80). New
26540149 (Grant-in-Aid for Challenging Exploratory York: Cambridge University Press.
Research) and 24000012 (Grant-in-Aid for Specially Kawakami, A. (2013). Why we like sad music. The New
Promoted Research). York Times. Available online at:
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Kawakami, A., Furukawa, K., Katahira, K., Kamiyama, K.,
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