Cultural	
  aspects	
  related	
  to	
  motivation	
  to	
  learn	
  in	
  a	
  Mexican	
  context	
  

                                                                                         1,*                                                          2
                         Erika-­‐Annabel	
  Martínez-­‐Mirón ,	
  Genaro	
  Rebolledo-­‐Méndez 	
  
                                                 1
                                             Universidad	
  Politécnica	
  de	
  Puebla,	
  Puebla,	
  México
                                     *Corresponding	
  Author:	
  erika.martinez@uppuebla.edu.mx
                                                2
                                                  Universidad	
  Veracruzana,	
  Xalapa,	
  México	
  
                                                           g.rebolledo@gmail.com	
  



           Abstract.	
   The	
   development	
   of	
   motivationally	
   intelligent	
   tutoring	
   systems	
   has	
   been	
   based	
   on	
   a	
  
           variety	
   of	
   motivational	
   models	
   from	
   the	
   psychology	
   field.	
   These	
   models	
   mainly	
   consider	
  
           characteristics	
   from	
   de	
   areas	
   of	
   values,	
   expectancies	
   and	
   feelings	
   [1].	
   However,	
   this	
   paper	
   proposes	
  
           to	
   take	
   into	
   account	
   some	
   cultural	
   aspects	
   when	
   operationalizing	
   such	
   models.	
   The	
   basis	
   of	
   this	
  
           proposal	
   is	
   presented	
   from	
   the	
   perspective	
   of	
   some	
   cultural	
   aspects	
   that	
   effect	
   career	
   choice,	
   in	
  
           particular	
  for	
  a	
  Mexican	
  context.	
  	
  

           Keywords:	
  Motivation,	
  career	
  choice,	
  Mexican	
  cultural	
  context	
  


1          Introduction	
  
Research	
   in	
   motivation	
   to	
   learn	
   when	
   using	
   educational	
   technology	
   has	
   operationalized	
   different	
  
motivational	
   models	
   found	
   in	
   the	
   psychological	
   literature	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   develop	
   motivationally	
   intelligent	
  
tutoring	
   systems.	
   According	
   to	
   these	
   models,	
   motivationally	
   aware	
   tutoring	
   systems	
   should	
   combine	
  
expertise	
   and	
   knowledge	
   about	
   user’s	
   cognitive,	
   affective,	
   meta-­‐cognitive	
   and	
   meta-­‐affective	
   levels	
   in	
  
order	
   to	
   appropriately	
   react	
   and	
   be	
   able	
   to	
   favor	
   user’s	
   learning	
   [2,	
   3].	
   That	
   is,	
   these	
   models	
   should	
  
mainly	
  consider	
  characteristics	
  from	
  the	
  areas	
  of	
  values,	
  expectancies	
  and	
  feelings	
  [1].	
  
However,	
   this	
   paper	
   argues	
   also	
   for	
   the	
   inclusion	
   of	
   other	
   aspects	
   that	
   have	
   been	
   seldom	
   taken	
   into	
  
account	
   so	
   far.	
   We	
   refer	
   to	
   cultural	
   aspects	
   inherent	
   to	
   each	
   group	
   of	
   individuals	
   from	
   a	
   certain	
  
background.	
   Since	
   there	
   is	
   evidence	
   that	
   students	
   from	
   different	
   cultural	
   origin	
   react	
   to	
   the	
   same	
  
motivational	
  strategy	
  in	
  a	
  different	
  way	
  [4,	
  5,	
  6]	
  or	
  have	
  different	
  attitudes	
  for	
  online	
  assessment	
  [7],	
  
the	
   cultural	
   aspect	
   of	
   learning	
   with	
   technology	
   becomes	
   an	
   important	
   issue.	
   For	
   instance,	
   if	
   a	
   female	
  
student	
  from	
  a	
  highly	
  gender-­‐stereotyped	
  cultural	
  background	
  is	
  asked	
  to	
  attend	
  a	
  course	
  considered	
  
to	
  be	
  strongly	
  oriented	
  to	
  men,	
  then	
  she	
  might	
  perceived	
  to	
  be	
  in	
  the	
  wrong	
  course	
  and	
  probably	
  will	
  
not	
  exert	
  her	
  maximum	
  effort.	
  Or	
  even	
  she	
  might	
  believe	
  that	
  her	
  role	
  in	
  society	
  is	
  to	
  be	
  protected	
  by	
  
someone,	
   and	
   she	
   attends	
   courses	
   just	
   to	
   be	
   in	
   the	
   possibility	
   to	
   meet	
   that	
   expectation.	
   It	
   will	
   not	
  
matter	
   what	
   motivational	
   strategy	
   the	
   teacher	
   uses,	
   since	
   the	
   female	
   student’s	
   cultural	
   belief	
   is	
   in	
   an	
  
apparently	
   superior	
   level	
   and	
   she	
   will	
   only	
   be	
   concerned	
   to	
   learn	
   at	
   the	
   minimum,	
   just	
   to	
   continue	
  
studying	
  until	
  meeting	
  her	
  protector	
  [8].	
  	
  
In	
   order	
   to	
   develop	
   the	
   arguments	
   to	
   support	
   the	
   inclusion	
   of	
   cultural	
   aspects	
   in	
   the	
   design	
   of	
  
motivationally-­‐aware	
  tutoring	
  systems,	
  the	
  following	
  sections	
  describe	
  some	
  of	
  these	
  elements	
  within	
  a	
  
Mexican	
   context	
   from	
   the	
   perspective	
   of	
   career	
   choice,	
   based	
   on	
   the	
   findings	
   that	
   instrumental	
  
motivation	
  is	
  an	
  important	
  predictor	
  for	
  course	
  selection,	
  career	
  choice,	
  and	
  performance	
  [9,	
  10].	
  That	
  
is,	
  students	
  may	
  pursue	
  to	
  perform	
  well	
  in	
  some	
  tasks	
  because	
  they	
  are	
  important	
  for	
  future	
  goals,	
  even	
  
if	
  the	
  student	
  is	
  not	
  interested	
  on	
  the	
  task.	
  


2          Motivation,	
  career	
  guidance	
  and	
  cultural	
  context	
  
Motivation	
   is	
   related	
   to	
   the	
   student’s	
   desire	
   to	
   participate	
   in	
   the	
   learning	
   process.	
   Current	
   research	
  
findings	
   suggest	
   that	
   motivational	
   constructs	
   do	
   change	
   over	
   time	
  [11,	
   12,	
   13]	
   and/or	
   contexts	
   [14,	
   15,	
  
16].	
  In	
  particular,	
  it	
  is	
  well	
  documented	
  that	
  cultural	
  differences	
  affect	
  achievement	
  motivation	
  [4,	
  5,	
  6].	
  
We	
  believe	
  that	
  if	
  teachers	
  truly	
  want	
  to	
  promote	
  the	
  success	
  of	
  all	
  students,	
  they	
  must	
  recognize	
  how	
  
achievement	
  motivation	
  varies	
  culturally	
  within	
  the	
  population	
  it	
  serves.	
  	
  
Similarly,	
  career	
  counseling	
  must	
  incorporate	
  different	
  variables	
  and	
  different	
  processes	
  to	
  be	
  effective	
  
for	
  students	
  from	
  different	
  cultural	
  contexts.	
  Career	
  counseling	
  is	
  defined	
  as	
  "the	
  process	
  of	
  assisting	
  
individuals	
  in	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  a	
  life-­‐career	
  with	
  focus	
  on	
  the	
  definition	
  of	
  the	
  worker	
  role	
  and	
  how	
  
that	
  role	
  interacts	
  with	
  other	
  life	
  roles"	
  [17].	
  	
  
According	
   to	
   Rivera	
   [18],	
   there	
   are	
   characteristics	
   that	
   prevail	
   among	
   Hispanic/Latino	
   American	
  
children	
  and	
  adolescents,	
  such	
  as:	
  A)	
  Restraint	
  of	
  feelings,	
  particularly	
  anger	
  and	
  frustration;	
  B)	
  Limited	
  
verbal	
  expressions	
  toward	
  authority	
  figures;	
  C)	
  Preference	
  for	
  closer	
  personal	
  space;	
  avoidance	
  of	
  eye	
  
contact	
  when	
  listening	
  or	
  speaking	
  to	
  authority	
  figures;	
  D)	
  Relaxation	
  about	
  time	
  and	
  punctuality;	
  and	
  
immediate	
   short-­‐term	
   goals;	
   E)	
   Collective,	
   group	
   identity;	
   interdependence;	
   cooperative	
   rather	
   than	
  
competitive;	
   emphasis	
   on	
   interpersonal	
   relations.	
   To	
   certain	
   extent,	
   these	
   characteristics	
   can	
   be	
  
considered	
  part	
  of	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  four	
  sources	
  of	
  information,	
  social	
  persuasion,	
  included	
  in	
  the	
  model	
  of	
  
the	
  Socio	
  Cognitive	
  Career	
  Theory	
  [19],	
  (see	
  Table	
  1).	
  This	
  framework	
  conceptualizes	
  career	
  choice	
  as	
  a	
  
process	
  with	
  multiple	
  stages	
  and	
  different	
  sources	
  of	
  information.	
  We	
  propose	
  that	
  cultural	
  aspects	
  of	
  
the	
   Mexican	
   context	
   might	
   have	
   an	
   impact	
   not	
   just	
   the	
   process	
   of	
   choosing	
   a	
   career,	
   but	
   on	
   the	
   way	
  
students	
  undertake	
  their	
  learning	
  activities	
  as	
  described	
  in	
  the	
  following	
  paragraphs.	
  
	
  
	
  
Table	
  1.	
  Sources	
  of	
  information	
  proposed	
  in	
  the	
  model	
  of	
  social	
  cognitive	
  influences	
  on	
  career	
  choice	
  behavior	
  [19]	
  
	
  
       Source	
  of	
                           Description	
  
       information	
  
       Performance	
                            Success	
  in	
  performing	
  the	
  target	
  task	
  or	
  behavior	
  
       accomplishment	
                         	
  
       Vicarious	
  learning	
  or	
            To	
  watch	
  others	
  who	
  could	
  perform	
  the	
  target	
  behavior	
  
       modeling	
                               successfully.	
  
       Emotional	
  arousal	
                   Anxiety	
  when	
  performing	
  the	
  target	
  behavior	
  
       Social	
  persuasion	
                   Support	
  and	
  encouragement	
  from	
  others	
  in	
  the	
  process	
  of	
  
                                                performing	
  the	
  target	
  behavior.	
  
	
  

2.1           Machismo	
  
There	
   is	
   growing	
   research	
   supporting	
   that	
   achievement	
   differences	
   between	
   genders	
   are	
   smaller	
  
during	
  early	
  years	
  of	
  school	
  or	
  being	
  reduced	
  [20].	
  The	
  succession	
  of	
  career	
  behaviors	
  for	
  women	
  is	
  far	
  
more	
   complex	
   than	
   for	
   men.	
   In	
   particular,	
   in	
   Mexican	
   students,	
   the	
   complexities	
   might	
   lay	
   in	
   the	
  
cultural	
   aspect	
   of	
   machismo.	
   In	
   Mendoza’s	
   review	
   [21],	
   machismo	
   is	
   defined	
   as	
   a	
   strong	
   sense	
   of	
  
masculine	
  pride,	
  and	
  it	
  is	
  suggested	
  that	
  machismo	
  should	
  be	
  considered	
  in	
  any	
  Latino	
  study,	
  but	
  it	
  is	
  
often	
   forgotten.	
   The	
   social	
   behavior	
   pattern	
   associated	
   to	
   machismo	
   includes	
   the	
   expectation	
   of	
   men	
  
being	
  caring,	
  responsible,	
  decisive,	
  strong	
  of	
  character,	
  and	
  the	
  protector	
  of	
  probably	
  extended	
  family.	
  
At	
   the	
   same	
   time,	
   negative	
   aspects	
   of	
   machismo	
   include	
   aggressiveness,	
   physical	
   strength,	
   emotional	
  
insensitivity,	
  and	
  a	
  womanizing	
  attitude	
  towards	
  the	
  opposite	
  sex.	
  
Galanti	
   [22],	
   cited	
   in	
   [21],	
   surveyed	
   a	
   group	
   of	
   Latino	
   students	
   who	
   reported	
   that	
   the	
   relationship	
  
between	
  male	
  and	
  female	
  would	
  be	
  of	
  protector	
  and	
  protected.	
  More	
  specifically,	
  according	
  to	
  them,	
  the	
  
role	
  of	
  the	
  traditional	
  Hispanic	
  woman	
  is	
  to	
  look	
  after	
  the	
  family;	
  her	
  job	
  is	
  to	
  cook,	
  clean,	
  and	
  care	
  for	
  
the	
   children.	
   Other	
   characteristics	
   of	
   a	
   good	
   wife	
   include	
   submission	
   and	
   obedience	
   to	
   her	
   husband’s	
  
orders	
   without	
   questioning	
   him	
   but	
   rather	
   standing	
   behind	
   whatever	
   he	
   decides,	
   even	
   if	
   she	
   disagrees.	
  
She	
   must	
   also	
   be	
   tolerant	
   of	
   his	
   behavior.	
   Taking	
   into	
   account	
   these	
   views	
   it	
   is	
   understandable	
   that	
  
women´s	
   career	
   choice	
   might	
   be	
   influenced	
   by	
   the	
   fulfillment	
   of	
   this	
   profile	
   rather	
  than	
   freely	
   choosing	
  
a	
   career	
   that	
   may	
   imply	
   a	
   great	
   amount	
   of	
   dedication.	
   In	
   some	
   Mexican	
   contexts,	
   women	
   may	
   prefer	
   to	
  
undertake	
   studies	
   that	
   are	
   less	
   demanding.	
   Women	
   also	
   must	
   strive	
   to	
   overcome	
   obstacles	
   such	
   as	
  
gender	
   discrimination	
   and	
   sex	
   stereotyping.	
   For	
   instance,	
   Gallardo-­‐Hernández	
   et.	
   al.	
   reported	
   the	
  
results	
   of	
   a	
   questionnaire	
   applied	
   to	
   637	
   first-­‐year	
   medical	
   nutrition,	
   dentistry	
   and	
   nursing	
   students	
  
[23].	
   The	
   findings	
   suggest	
   that	
   among	
   women	
   of	
   low	
   socioeconomic	
   strata,	
   more	
   traditional	
   gender	
  
stereotypes	
  prevail	
  which	
  lead	
  them	
  to	
  seek	
  career	
  choices	
  considered	
  feminine.	
  Among	
  men,	
  there	
  is	
  a	
  
clear	
   relationship	
   between	
   career	
   choice,	
   socioeconomic	
   level	
   and	
   internalization	
   of	
   gender	
  
stereotypes.	
  	
  


2.2        Social	
  orientation	
  	
  
Cooperative	
   learning	
   is	
   very	
   important	
   for	
   Mexicans	
   [24].	
   They	
   do	
   not	
   seem	
   to	
   openly	
   want	
   to	
   show	
  
what	
  they	
  know	
  for	
  fear	
  of	
  embarrassing	
  those	
  who	
  do	
  not	
  know	
  [25].	
  It	
  is	
  not	
  common	
  in	
  a	
  Hispanic	
  
family	
   to	
   encourage	
   children	
   to	
   excel	
   over	
   siblings	
   or	
   peers	
   but	
   rather,	
  it	
  is	
  considered	
  bad	
  manners.	
   It	
  
is	
  worth	
  noting	
  that	
  most	
  of	
  the	
  studies	
  reported	
  have	
  taken	
  into	
  account	
  the	
  Mexican	
  context	
  around	
  
Mexican	
  American	
  students	
  but	
  no	
  studies	
  so	
  far	
  focus	
  on	
  comparison	
  between	
  this	
  population	
  and	
  a	
  
Mexican	
   population	
   living	
   in	
   Mexico.	
   Nevertheless,	
   their	
   findings	
   can,	
   to	
   some	
   extent,	
   be	
   considered	
  
valid	
   for	
   Mexican	
   population.	
   For	
   instance,	
   Ojeda	
   and	
   Flores	
   [26]	
   considered	
   the	
   educational	
  
aspirations	
   of	
   186	
   Mexican	
   American	
   high	
   school	
   students	
   to	
   test	
   a	
   portion	
   of	
   social-­‐cognitive	
   career	
  
theory	
  [19].	
  Their	
  results	
  indicated	
  that	
  perceived	
  educational	
  barriers	
  significantly	
  predicted	
  students'	
  
educational	
   aspirations	
   above	
   and	
   beyond	
   the	
   influence	
   of	
   gender,	
   generation	
   level,	
   and	
   parents'	
  
education	
   level.	
   Similarly,	
   Flores,	
   Romero	
   and	
   Arbona	
   [27]	
   found	
   that	
   Mexican	
   American	
   men	
   and	
  
women	
  with	
  high	
  measures	
  of	
  ethnic	
  loyalty	
  might	
  be	
  at	
  risk	
  for	
  perceiving	
  social	
  costs	
  of	
  pursuing	
  a	
  
higher	
  education.	
  


2.3        Perception	
  of	
  time	
  and	
  career	
  guidance	
  
Mexicans	
   are	
   oriented	
   toward	
   present	
   time;	
   they	
   are	
   focused	
   on	
   “right	
   now”	
   rather	
   than	
   on	
   the	
   past	
   or	
  
on	
  future	
  events	
  or	
  outcomes.	
  They	
  often	
  live	
  the	
  phrase	
  “Dios	
  dirá”	
  or	
  "God	
  will	
  tell,"	
  that	
  is,	
  time	
  is	
  
relative.	
   To	
   arrive	
   late	
   for	
   an	
   engagement	
   is	
   called	
   in	
   the	
   southwest	
   "Mexican	
   time."	
   This	
   perception	
  
permeates	
   career-­‐counseling	
   programs	
   in	
   the	
   Mexican	
   context,	
   since	
   its	
   interventions	
   start	
   in	
   the	
  
educational	
   level	
   just	
   behind	
   the	
   university	
   program	
   [28].	
   Therefore,	
   students	
   have	
   to	
   decide	
   in	
   a	
  
relatively	
  short	
  period	
  of	
  time	
  which	
  career	
  suits	
  them	
  best.	
  Sometimes	
  the	
  students	
  might	
  have	
  a	
  great	
  
amount	
  of	
  career	
  information,	
  making	
  it	
  difficult	
  to	
  make	
  a	
  good	
  analysis	
  of	
  each	
  of	
  the	
  options.	
  But	
  it	
  
also	
   might	
   occur	
   that	
   there	
   is	
   little	
   availability	
   of	
   information	
   and	
   students	
   might	
   end	
   up	
   making	
   an	
  
inadequate	
  career	
  choice.	
  	
  	
  	
  


3          Discussion	
  
Increasingly,	
  researchers	
  are	
  calling	
  for	
  studies	
  of	
  change	
  in	
  motivation,	
  rather	
  than	
  treating	
  motivation	
  
as	
  a	
  static	
  trait-­‐like	
  factor	
  [1],	
  [4].	
  However,	
  those	
  studies	
  mainly	
  consider	
  motivation	
  to	
  be	
  influenced	
  
by	
  characteristics	
  from	
  the	
  areas	
  of	
  values,	
  expectancies	
  and	
  feelings	
   [1],	
  without	
  taking	
  into	
  account	
  
that	
   some	
   cultural	
   aspects	
   like	
   machismo,	
   social	
   orientation	
   or	
   perception	
   of	
   time	
   might	
   also	
   be	
  
influencing	
   how	
   students	
   approach	
   to	
   a	
   learning	
   activity.	
   For	
   instance,	
   women	
   could	
   be	
   avoiding	
  
pursuing	
   a	
   career	
   that	
   would	
   not	
   allow	
   them	
   to	
   easily	
   integrate	
   their	
   expected	
   roles	
   as	
   mother	
   and	
  
spouse	
   with	
   their	
   future	
   professional	
   activity.	
   Also,	
   the	
   perception	
   of	
   educational	
   barriers,	
   such	
   as	
  
gender	
   and	
   ethnicity,	
   nurtured	
   by	
   the	
   social	
   context	
   could	
   reinforce	
   the	
   idea	
   of	
   choosing	
   a	
   career	
  
according	
  to	
  the	
  students’	
  sex,	
  which	
  in	
  turn	
  might	
  influence	
  students’	
  motivation	
  to	
  learn	
  a	
  particular	
  
area	
   of	
   study.	
   Although	
   there	
   is	
   little	
   research	
   evidence	
   that	
   establishes	
   a	
   direct	
   connection	
   between	
  
career	
  choice	
  and	
  motivation	
  to	
  learn	
  a	
  particular	
  topic,	
  this	
  paper	
  reviewed	
  some	
  cultural	
  aspects	
  in	
  
the	
   Mexican	
   context	
   that	
   have	
   an	
   impact	
   on	
   students’	
   learning	
   behavior.	
   	
   Based	
   on	
   this,	
   we	
   consider	
  
plausible	
   to	
   do	
   some	
   research	
   that	
   consider	
   these	
   aspects	
   when	
   designing	
   a	
   motivationally	
   tutoring	
  
system.	
   For	
   example,	
   in	
   a	
   Mexican	
   context,	
   a	
   tutoring	
   system	
   for	
   Mathematics	
   could	
   emphasize	
  
women’s	
   capacity	
   to	
   solve	
   problems	
   regardless	
   of	
   their	
   gender,	
   like	
   providing	
   feedback	
   including	
  
mentions	
   to	
   important	
   contributions	
   from	
   female	
   scientists,	
   or	
   listing	
   the	
   advantages	
   of	
   achieving	
  
personal	
  professional	
  success	
  as	
  a	
  woman,	
  or	
  maybe	
  using	
  a	
  very	
  strong	
  female	
  character	
  showing	
  high	
  
IQ	
  as	
  the	
  main	
  avatar.	
  	
  
	
  

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   profesional	
  
    técnico.	
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