Importance of Water in Morphology
Yasemin Leventeli1
1
Akdeniz University, Geological Engineering Department, Antalya, Turkey
Abstract. Numerous huge landslides and a lot of springs are located in Ecemiş
Fault Zone between Adana and Niğde, in the south of Turkey. The water-
discontinuity-clay trinity plays a significant role in the formation of these
landslides and morphology of the area. A large-scale dam and a highway were
planned in this valley where is highly rich in terms of flora and fauna and
composed by huge slopes. This study showed that the water in the area is
meteoric and one of the main cause of landslides. Any big project can cause
many geotechnical problems with remedial works. Because, the safety
coefficient of huge landslides is 1 which means their stability is critical and
any operation will disrupt this balance. Because of this and/or similar
geotechnical problems; the projects were canceled. Besides, water is potable
and suitable for irrigation and the valley stands as national wealth.
Keywords: Ecemiş, fault, landslide, water.
1 Introduction
The study area is located on Ecemiş Fault Zone; between Pozantı, district of Adana
and Bademdere, district of Niğde with 0.5 - 5 km wide and about 60 km long (Figure
1). The trinity water-discontinuity-clay (WDC) is the main cause of geotechnical
problems in the zone; especially huge landslides with several billions cubic meters
have been formed by this trinity.
The aims of this study are to reveal the role of water in the formation of landslides
by identifying the origin of water and to understand the geochemical properties of it.
186
Fig. 1. Location map of study area.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Materials
The study area is a hallway with about 60 km long and 0.5 - 5 km width between
Adana and Niğde, is located in Ecemiş Fault Zone which is one of the important
tectonic places in Turkey (Figure 2). The zone was formed between Paleocene and
Lutetian. The main fault has a direction with N20E, left-lateral, vertical strike-slip.
The second major fault in the study area is Cevizlik Fault which is more or less
parallel to the Ecemiş Fault.
Numerous sources and ponds were created in the study area, along Ecemiş Fault
Zone. Three sources called Ecemiş Balık Çifliği, Elekgölü and Zekinin Damları were
selected to get the samples.
2.2 Methods
First, the geological, geotechnical and hydrogeological properties of the area had
been determined. Then, three sources called Ecemiş Balık Çifliği, Elekgölü and
Zekinin Damları, were selected. Subsequently, water samples from these three
sources were taken in February and July to represent the seasons of winter and
summer. Isotope analysis of these samples have been made, in laboratory of
Tubingen University, to understand relationship between groundwater and
landslides. Geochemical analysis have been made to determine the potability and
availability of irrigation. The ions in water samples taken from sources were
determined.
187
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Geology
The geological map of the study area is shown in Figure 3. The Mesozoic and
Cenozoic units are located in the study area. Upper Triassic settlement aged rocks,
schist and marble, are situated in the north and northwest of the study area and form
the basis. Cretaceous settlement aged melange with limestone and serpentine lies
tectonically over this unit. This melange is located on south, southeast and east of the
study area. This unit is overlaid tectonically by Tertiary– Cretaceous settlement aged
melange with spilitic basalt, gabbro, limestone and similar components.
These complex are overlaid unconformably by Middle - Upper Paleocene aged
Çamardı formation which is marl-mudstone-sandstone-clayey limestone in the
northwest of the study. Eocene aged Kaleboynu formation overlies unconformably
Çamardı formation with limestone-sandstone-conglomerates. Than Oligocene aged
Çukurbağ formation comes unconformably with sandstone-conglomerate-siltstone
and mudstone in the north and northeast of the study area. Miocene aged Burç
formation consisting of marl and sandstone comes on Çukurbağ formation
unconformably in the north of the study area. Later, Miocene aged flysch comes with
angular unconformity in the south. Pliocene aged lake sediments are located
unconformably in a narrow area in the north. Plio-Quaternary settlement aged
Çatalca formation overlies on the old units unconformably in the east. Finally,
Quaternary aged units, terrace sediments, talus, clay cover and alluvium deposits are
located in the area (Yetiş, 1978).
188
E
ON
E ST
LI M
TALUS
UNSTABLE MASS
LIM E
STO
NE
SLIDE MASS
SLIDE MASS
Figure 2. Slide masses in Ecemiş Fault Zone.
3.2 Mechanism of Landslides
The study area is bounded by Aladağlar between 2000 and 3700 meters elevation
on the east. This area has more precipitation than the study area (800 - 1600 m) and
precipitation type is usually snow. This mountain mainly consists of karstic
limestone besides peridotite, serpentinite and clastic rocks. As seen in Figure 4,
189
Miocene aged impermeable and semi-permeable sedimentary units with claystone-
mudstone (Mif) overlay on karstic limestone unit of Cretaceous settlement aged
complex (Kkk). Groundwater table changes more than 300 m (30 bar) annually, in
the Kkk under the Mif (Leventeli, 2002). Meteoric waters enter to the Kkk from the
higher parts of Aladağlar and creates several meters thick slide masses (Qk) by
artesian under the Mif. Billions of cubic meters of slide masses are located in the
eastern part of the Ecemiş Fault Zone with this type of mechanism. Flow of resources
on the heel depends on thickness of the impermeable-semipermeable unit overlies
karstic limestone as well as the season.
3.3 Isotope Hydrology
Water samples taken from the field were performed to determine the origin and
during these studies SMOW method was used (Craig, 1961; Canik, 1998). The
results of the analysis are shown in Table 1, Table 2 and Figure 5. The analysis show
that the origin of water is meteoric. This result means that water is one of the main
causes of the landslide in the study area.
3.4 Geochemical Analysis
Geochemical analysis were performed to determine physical and chemical
properties of water in the study area.
Samples of water taken from sources contain ions are determined as mg/lt by
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The obtained results are given in Table 3.
However, the chemical reaction power of the molten element, is not its weight, is
related with the number of reactive equivalents. So, besides the values which were
determined as milligrams per liter of cations and anions, they were also determined
in milliequivalents per liter (Table 4).
190
SYMBOLS LEGENDS
Qa Alluvial deposits
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE STUDY AREA Source
Pına rb aşı Yas emin
LEVEN TELİ,
2002 Qk Clay cover / sliding mass
Ecemi ş Stream
Balık
Çift. (re vised
from
Ye tiş ,
1 978;
MTA ,
1987;
1990)
Qs
T -‐ K k Terrace sediments
Abandoned route
Qg Quaternery deposits
Kara muk State Roud
Kar a Pl-Qç Çatalca Formation
pı na
r
S . Fault
Olç Qk
Olç Çukurbağ Formation
31 Dip/dip direction of beds
Qg T-K k Melange
4
m 3/s Settlement area
T-Kkt Olistoliths of T-Kk
Lim estone component of
Kkk
melange aged Cretaceous
Qs
Çu Pl-‐ Q ç
191
Aktaş Qs ku
75 rb Pl-‐Q ç Kkk
ağ
Qk
.
öz
S
Martı
g
41 Qg Z ek ini n
Ala
T-‐ Kkk D aml arı
Qk
T -‐ Kk Olç
28 Elekg ölü
Qg So urce
Pl-‐ Qç
T-‐ Kkt Pl-‐ Qç Pl-‐ Qç
Elekg ölü
3
Qs
0
2
K m 3
8
m /s Ecemiş
S. 6
m /s
Qs Qa
Figure 3. Geological map of study area.
192
Table1. The results of isotope analyzes of water samples taken on February 2001.
δ18O (%o) δD (%o)
SOURCE δ18O (%o) raw SOURCE δD (%o) raw
VSMOW VSMOW
-11,27 -12,08 -79,63 -75,95
Ecemiş Ecemiş
Balık -11,51 -12,32 Balık -78,63 -74,94
Çiftliği Average Çiftliği Average
-11,39 -12,20 -79,13 -75,45
Standard Standard
Deviation 0,12 0,12 Deviation 0,50 0,51
-10,30 -11,11 --- -64,76
-10,33 -11,14 --- ---
Elekgölü Elekgölü
Average Average
-10,31 -11,13 -68,47 ---
Standard Standard
Deviation 0,02 0.02 Deviation --- ---
-9,91 -10,72 -67,86 -64,15
Zekinin -9,94 -10,75 Zekinin -66,91 -63,19
Damları Average Damları Average
-9,92 -10,74 -66,90 -63,18
Standard Standard
Deviation 0,01 0,02 Deviation 0,79 0,80
Table 2. The results of isotope analyzes of water samples taken on July 2001.
δ18O (%o) δD (%o)
SOURCE δ18O (%o) raw SOURCE δD (%o) raw
VSMOW VSMOW
-11,88 -13,16 -76,8 -81,7
Ecemiş -11,71 -12,99 Ecemiş -75,9 -81,1
Balık Balık
Average -11,79 -13,07 Average -76,4 -81,4
Çiftliği Çiftliği
Standard Standard
Deviation 0,09 0,09 Deviation 0,4 0,3
-10,35 -11,63 -63,2 -72,6
-10,35 -11,63 -65,3 -74
Elekgölü Elekgölü
Average -10,35 -11,63 Average -64,3 -73,3
Standard Standard
Deviation 0.00 0.00 Deviation 1.0 0,7
-10,05 -11,33 -60,8 -71
Zekinin -10,02 -11,3 Zekinin -59,8 -70,3
Damları Average -10,04 -11,32 Damları Average -60,3 -70,7
Standard Standard
Deviation 0,01 0,01 Deviation 0,5 0,3
193
The French hardness preferred to determine the hardness of water samples taken
from study area and the following equations were used for it (Şahinci, 1991); the
results are given in Table 5.
Total Hardness (FS) = 0.2497Ca + 0.4115Mg (1)
Total Hardness (FS) = 5 (rCa + rMg) (2)
Schoeller diagram, which is common in hydrogeolgy, has been used to determine
water potability (Figure 6).
Excess of dissolved ions in irrigation water affect plants and soil by physical and
chemical ways and reduce the yield. These ions cause to reduce the osmotic pressure
in the cells of the plant and the water can not reach to the branches and leaves; then
they disrupt the metabolism of plants. Therefore, Wilcox (Figure 7) and U.S. Salinity
Laboratory (Figure 8) diagrams were used to determine the chemical properties of
water in the study area, due to be evaluated in terms of agriculture. However, first
SAR and % Na values were determined in these diagrams (Table 6).
Table 3. The chemical analysis results of water received during the months of February and
July (mg/lt).
Cations(mg/lt) Anions (mg/lt) Totol
Months Source Ions
Na K Ca Mg Cl SO4 HCO3
(mg/lt)
Ecemiş
Balık 1,00 0.25 40.0 5.0 10,6 2,32 129,3 188,47
February Çift.
Elekgölü 2,50 0.25 55.0 3.0 15,9 2,73 175,6 254,98
Zekinin
2,75 0.50 52.5 12,17 11,5 4,4 207,4 291,22
Damları
Ecemiş
Balık 0,2 0,29 12,75 2,8 5,3 2,5 122 145,84
July Çift.
Elekgölü 2 0,29 22,75 1,87 6,2 2,65 146 181,76
Zekinin
2,57 0,29 21,25 6,33 7,1 3,95 190,3 231,79
Damları
194
0 SMOW
ic
o r el
ete lev
M ter
-20 wa
dD (%o, VSMOW)
-40
-60
2 3
1
-80
-100
-15 -10 -5 0 5
18
d O (%o, VSMOW)
Values of water analysis taken on 15 February 2001. 1. Ecemiş
2. Elekgölü
Values of water analysis taken on 15 July 2001.
3. Zekinin Damları
Standard values.
ic SMOW
0 o r el
ete lev
M ter
-20 wa
dD (%o, VSMOW)
-40
3
-60
2
1
-80
-100
-15 -10 -5 0 5
18
d O (%o, VSMOW)
Fig. 5. Result of isotope analysis.
195
Table 4. The chemical analysis results of three different sources water taken on February and
July (mek/lt).
Cations (mek/lt) Anions (mek/lt) Total Ions French
Months Source EC
Na K Ca Mg Cl SO4 HCO3 (mek/lt) Hard.
Ecemiş
Balık 269.24 0.043 0.0064 2.000 0.416 0.298 0.048 2.119 4.930 12
Çiftliği
February
Elekgölü 364.26 0.108 0.0064 2.750 0.25 0.447 0.056 2.878 6.495 15
Zekinin
416.03 0.119 0.0128 2.625 1.058 0.323 0.091 3.400 7.629 18
Damları
Ecemiş
Balık 208.34 0.0087 0.0074 0.637 0.233 0.149 0.052 2.000 3.087 4.3
Çiftliği
July
Elekgölü 259.66 0.086 0.0074 1.137 0.155 0.175 0.055 2.393 4.008 6.4
Zekinin
331.13 0.111 0.0074 1.062 0.527 0.200 0.082 3.119 5.108 7.9
Damları
Table 5. Classification of water according to French Hardness (Şahinci, 1991).
French Hardness
Months Source 0-7.2 7.2-14.5 14.5-21.5 21.5-32.5 32.5-54.0 >54
Ecemiş Balık Çiftliği *
February Elekgölü *
Zekinin Damları *
Ecemiş Balık Çiftliği *
July Elekgölü *
Zekinin Damları *
Moderate
Quite
Very
Hard
Hard
Hard
Very
Hard
Soft
soft
Classification
196
S C H O E LLE R ’S D I A G R A M
Conductivity
mikromho/cm FS Na (mg/l) Cl (mg/l) SO4 (mg/l)
8000
5000 6000
20000 200 1000 7
9 5
NON-POTABLE 4 6
8
WAT ER
5
7 4
3
6
4
3
10000 100 5
9 9 2 3
8 8 4
2
NON-POTABLE 7 7
WAT ER 6 6 3
2
UNLESS
5 5
MANDATORY
1000
4 4 2
9
1000
8
POOR 9
3 3 7
QUALIT Y 1000 8
WAT ER 6 9
7
rCa + rMg
8
5 6
2 2 100 7
9 5
4 6
MODERAT E 8
WAT ER 7 5 4
QUALIT Y 6
3
4
3
1000 10 5
9 9 2 3
GOOD 8 8 4
2
QUALIT Y 7 7
WAT ER 6 6 3
2
5 5
100
4 4 2 9
100
WAT E R
8
9
3 3 7
100 8
6 9 7
5 8
6
2 2 7
5
4 6
VERY
GOOD 5 4
3
QUALIT Y
P O TAB L E
WAT ER 4
3
100 5
0 .9 2 3
0 .8 4
0 .7 2
0 .6 3
2
0 .5
10
0 .4 2 9 10
8 9
7 8
10
EXPLANATIONS 6 9
7
8 6
5
FEBRUARY 7
6
5
4
Ecemis Balik Çiftliğ i 5 4
3
Elekgölü 4 3
Zekinin Damlar ı
2 3
2
JULY 2
Ecemis Balik Çiftliğ i 1 1
Elekgölü 9
8
Zekinin Damlar ı 7 1
9
Fig. 6. Water classification according to Schoeller.
197
100
90
80
Permissible to doubtful
70
Sodium Percent (% Na)
60 Doubtful to unsuitable
Unsuitable
50
Very good to good
40
Good to permissible
30
20
10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Electrical Conductivity (mikromho/cm) at 25° C
Fig. 7. Water classification according to Wilcox.
198
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1000 2 3 4 10000
VERY
4 HIGH
30
C1-S4
26 C2-S4
HIGH
C3-S4
(SA R)
22
C4-S4
C1-S3
SO DIUM(ALKA LI)HAZARD
3
R AT I O
18
C2-S3
MEDIUM
ADSORPTION
14 C3-S3
C1-S2
2
C2-S2 C4-S3
10
S ODIUM
C3-S2
6
C4-S2
LOW
C1-S1
C2-S1
C3-S1
2
C4-S1
1
0
CL 100 250 750 2250
AS 6 o
S CONDUCTIVITY (mikromho/cm) (Ecx10 ) 25 C
1 LOW 2 MEDIUM 3 HIGH 4 VERY HIGH
SALINITY HAZARD
Fig. 8. Salinity and alkalinity hazard of water in USA Salinity diagram.
199
Table 6. SAR and % rNa values of water.
Months Source SAR % Na
Ecemiş Balık Çiftliği 0.039 1.882
February Elekgölü 0.088 3.673
Zekinin Damları 0.087 3.454
Ecemiş Balık Çiftliği 0.013 1.816
July Elekgölü 0.107 6.741
Zekinin Damları 0.124 6.934
4 Conclusions
This study aimed to reveal the role of water in the formation of landslides and to
understand the geochemical properties of it. The conclusions of this study are below:
1. Origin of water is meteoric. This is evidence for being one of the main causes of
the slide in the study area. However, water is not alone in sliding. The trinity of
water-discontinuity-clay (WDC) is main reason for the billions of cubic meters of
large-scale slide in the zone.
2. The water-discontinuity-clay trinity created appreciably fertile lands for farming.
3. Water’s hardness ranges from “very soft” to “less hard” according to the French
hardness classes and hardness falls in the summer .
4. The Schoeller diagram used in the study area demonstrated that water is
drinkable.
5. According to the Wilcox diagram, water is classified as “very good-good” for
agricultural usage.
6. U.S. Salinity Laboratory diagrams show that water is located in C1-S1 and C2-S1
classes. It means water has low- medium salinity and low sodium. According
that; all type plants, except sodium-sensitive plants, can be grown.
7. Therefore, any engineering project implemented without considering
geotechnical parameters will lead to the reactivation of landslides and destroy
settlement areas and gorgeous fertile plain in the region.
Acknowledgment. The financial support of the scientific research projects unit of
Akdeniz University is gratefully acknowledged. The author also would like to thank
to Muharrem SATIR for his assistance in chemical analysis.
200
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