Attitude of Evros' s Farmers for the Genetically Modified Trees

Abstract

Genetically modified trees are now one more expression of human intervention in nature. As for other people is a suicidal mood at the cost of profit maximization, for others is an inevitable trend for the survival of continuing growing world population that gathers several advantages, a survey of those directly involved in the primary sector, farmers, and deemed necessary. The implementation of this research includes the completion of 100 questionnaires from farmers in the region of Evros. Then, using the widely used Excel and SPSS software packages are processed research results with the discovery of useful correlations. The results show that in the region of Evros opinions of farmers who have negative attitude to the cultivation of genetically modified forest trees is much more (70) versus those with positive (30). Both trends express their concern on different characteristics, the systematic mapping of which is attempted in this work. The intension to cultivate genetically modified trees in relation to the demographic characteristics of the farmers, the farm size, the farm size and the type of cultivation are also investigated.

Keywords

• Genetically Modified Forest Trees
• Evros
• Farmers
• Analysis of attitudes

1 Introduction

Biotechnology is characterized as the technology of biological processes using organisms, or parts of their processes for the manufacture or production of useful or commercially exploitable substances and to provide services for the benefit of man (Thieman and Palladino, 2008) . According to the Convention on Biological Diversity, biotechnology is defined as any technological application uses biological systems, living organisms or their derivatives to create or modify products for specific use (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992) . This definition includes medical and industrial applications as well as the tools and techniques used in agriculture and food production (FAO, 2004). The term denotes a wide range of processes, from the use of earthworms for protein production by the production of human genes, such as growth hormone. In biotech products include pharmaceutical proteins, foods, detergents, etc., while a variety of applications including the services of waste water and waste as a medical diagnosis, or achievements of gene therapy (EuropaBio, 2012) . Biotechnology today, builds on the achievements of modern molecular biology and uses a number of techniques, including genetic engineering (recombinant DNA), Methods and tissue engineered cell cultures on a large scale, the polymerase chain reaction, etc. It has numerous applications in health sciences, environmental protection (eg use in waste management), agriculture, livestock and industry. Together with biomedical technology, which the development of technologies with applications in medicine, biotechnology sometimes called biological engineering (Walter and Menzies, 2010) . In fact the term biotechnology includes a broad set of tools and application of these tools. Genetic engineering only started in 1982 when (Palmiter et al., 1982) created the first genetically modified or otherwise transgenic mice. Genetic engineering may be new but the creation of new agencies with modified genetic material, can be done relatively quickly.

Agricultural biotechnology concerns mainly Genetically Modified Trees (GMT) and is particularly interesting since the first seeds of GM in America planted. The commercial sale of genetically modified food began in 1994, when Calgene brought first marketed the slow ripening tomato (Clive, 1996) . According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Genetically Modified Trees are trees whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way not found in nature. This technology is often called modern biotechnology or gene technology and sometimes recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering (WHO, 2002). According to Sedjo (2004) a plant comprising introducing a gene using an approach beyond sex (nonsexual) considered bioengineered plant and designated as a transgenic. Among the various techniques used to generate transgenic plants, Agrobacterium transformation is the most widely used tool, representing 80% of the transgenic plants produced (Broothaerts et al., 2005) . The term GM crops refer to crop plants created with the latest technologies used molecular biology and which plants intended for consumption by humans or animals. The modification is done in laboratory conditions and its goal usually is to support them in a desirable feature, for example resistance to herbicides or improved nutritional content (Varzakas et al., 2007a) .

Over the last two decades there have been significant developments in biotechnological applications. The overall coverage in a survey (Sedjo, 2004) and the working paper (Preliminary review of biotechnology in forestry, 2004) present that the cultivation of GM foods and crops include dynamic technology, potential risks to public health and safety of ecosystems, powerful economic lobbies, impact on small surface areas and small farmers, nutritional promises and scandals, political strategies, European directives and easy identification of citizens with actual or potential problems and injustices arising from their use. Furthermore, the use of GM forest trees in commercial plantations would contribute to increased forest productivity, improved pulp for paper, biofuel production, climate change mitigation, preservation of biodiversity and reduction of energy, pesticides and fertilizers utilization (Sedjo 2006, Chapotin and Wolt 2007, FAO 2008, 2010, Hinchee et al. 2009, Flachowsky et al. 2009, Harfouche et al. 2011) . While these practices may perhaps increase profits for wood and paper products firms, the high economic, ecological and social costs associated with industrial tree plantations are paid by those living in and around large scale plantations and by society at large (Carman et al 2006).

The working group led by Professor Athanasios Tsaftaris (2004), the former Minister for Rural Development and Food, among other findings, discovers a reluctance of Central Macedonia farmers in dealing with the agro-biotechnologies. The Greeks generally have negative attitudes towards the cultivation and consumption of GM trees and products, and there seems to be consensus among politicians and citizens in their opposition to genetically modified (Kousis, 2009) . Greece has, so far, chosen the cultivation of GM trees mainly because of the small agricultural clergy, the geomorphological features, different microclimates and soil conditions favor the biological and integrated crop (Varzakas et al., 2007b) .

Furthermore, the application of GM technologies to trees has raised a number of potential public concerns. Many of these concerns, although not all, are the same raised for GM annual crop plants, including the potential for spread of antibiotic or herbicide resistance genes to other non-target species from GM trees; the potential for long – distance pollen spread over many years from long – lived trees, the potential for adverse effects on biodiversity from forests of GM trees; and any unexpected effects (Gartland et al 2003).e

Public acceptance in particular is influenced by environmental, public health and socio-cultural concerns, which have been raised mainly by opinion influencing groups. Concerns often focus on potential genetic flow between GM and wild trees and consequent implications for the natural environment, increased use of broad spectrum herbicides, more pesticide resistant forest trees, negative effects on forest tree fitness, potential higher vulnerability of forest trees to viral and other diseases, increased soil decomposition, adverse effects on biotrophic processes in host ecosystems, flowering suppression and cultural adaptation to altered biodiversity conditions due to transgene escape (El- Lakany 2004,Van Frankenhuyzen and Beardmore 2004, Williams 2006, Sedjo 2006, Farnum et al. 2007, FAO 2008, 2010) . In the Eurobarometer survey, (European Community, 2010) becomes apparent the opposition of the Greeks towards GM crops. While a small, relatively, a majority of Europeans (54%) believes that genetically modified foods are not good for them and their families, in Greece the percentage of those who oppose reaches 78%. The Greeks, in 89%, believe that it is fundamentally unnatural. Furthermore, 85% expressed huge concerns on security issues. As the former Minister of Rural Development and Food as Professor of Genetics and Biotechnology at AUTH, expressed concern for possible adoption of personal views in formulating national agricultural policy (Journal Ling, 2012). On the other hand, according to Tsourgiannis et. al. (2013), (2014), (2015a), (2015b) it appears that there might be potential buyers of products derived from GM trees and more particular for wood products, woody biomass energy products and paper products originating from transgenic plantations in Greece. Indeed, most of these potential consumers willing to purchase transgenic wood products base their buying decisions on economic issues (Tsourgiannis et. al. 2013, 2014, 2015a, 2015b) . Taking into consideration that most of these products are not directly linked with human health impacts, there is a potential for development of a market for such products, particularly in current times of economic depression.

The Peter Coventry (2001) argued that the Forest Council in the US should allow the certification of GM tree plantations as "well managed" by the effects of GM trees with reduced lignin in soils in relation to the physical produced. The Zolotov (2003) mentions the success of GM maize crops in the United States and expresses concern about the low rates of crops in Europe. Despite initial skepticism about whether biotechnology in forestry can also be related to environmental issues, including the effects on organisms associated with tree living and ecosystems, are presented and benefits from genetic modification of lignin (Axelsson et al., 2010). The reasons for not widespread commercial use of biotechnology research presented in 90 specific US (Strauss et al., 2009) .

The transgenic biotechnology can help the forest improvement programs, but can also simultaneously be of concern for the safety of the environment. Today there is an urgent need to establish a European platform to build on this knowledge of GMT (Gallardo et al., 2011) . Due to the negative public opinion about the GMT, the Strif and Broshe (2001) proposed to focus the efforts of the whole enterprise in producing trees which are not intended for consumption by humans or animals. For example, crops for the manufacture of fibers such as cotton or flax.

Developments in the field of GMT in plant industry have led to increased crop production and yield in turn have increased the use of genetically modified (GM) foods in the human food chain. The use of genetically modified foods for human consumption has raised a number of fundamental issues such as the ability of genetically modified foods cause potentially harmful immunological side effects like allergic hypersensitivity (Prescott and Hogan, 200 6). Kuiper and Kleter (2003 ) do compare the safety of conventional food with respect to genetically modified food.

Interesting aspects about genetically modified trees in forests, are the ethical considerations (Gamborg and Sandoe, 2010) , the relevant environmental concerns in forests (Fladung et al., 2010) , social, legal and regulatory issues related to genetically modified plants (Sedjo, 2010) .

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the approach. Section 3 describes the results for both descriptive statistics and advanced analysis. Section 4 presents discussion about the results together with directions in the future.

Approach

This study proposes an approach for analyzing the attitudes of farmers in the region of Evros regarding the Genetically Modified Trees. The research method used was simple random sampling. Information was recorded following an interview with each farmer individually.

The questionnaire consists of three parts. The first part comprises three farmers' attitude questions regarding Genetically Modified Forest Trees with analytical control of many individual factors. The second part includes the recording demographics of farmers. Finally the third part includes the recording of operating data for each of 100 farmers.

The questionnaire includes mainly qualitative data that is data stored in non-numeric form in contrast to quantitative data that are in numerical form. The quality is the data that describe the characteristics or properties held by an object (Strauss and Corbin, 1998) . The properties are categorized into classes that can then be assigned a numerical value. There is no significance to these data values, simply object characteristics. In some areas of social research, the distinction between qualitative-quantitative data has led to prolonged disputes where each group supports the superiority of its own data type (Trochim and Donnelly, 2006) . The 'quantitative' claim that their data is strictly reliable and scientifically while 'quality' that their are respectively sensitive, detailed and contextual.

Therefore, we suggest the following assumptions: H1: The cultivation intention is related to the gender of the farmer.

H2: The cultivation intention is related to the age of the farmer.

H3: The cultivation intention is related to the level of education.

H4: The cultivation intention is related to the farm size.

H5: The cultivation intention is related to the type of cultivation.

The analysis performed includes both descriptive statistics and advanced analysis using X2 test. 3

Results

Here are the results after data processing in Excel software packages 2007 and SPSS 18.0. 3.1

Descriptive Analysis

The sample is 100 farmers in the region of Evros, in the North East Greece. 55 of them are male and 45 are women. 65 are married and for 65 of them farming is their main occupation. 60% of the farmers in the sample are younger than 44 years old.

The distribution of the sample based on educational level is presented at table 4. 80% has graduated in High school or lower and only 20% are graduates of university.

The results of the Chi-Square test regarding the hypotheses of section 2, are presented in this subsection.

There is no dependence to gender (value of Pearson Chi-Square= is 0.433, df=1, pvalue=0.511).

There is dependence to age (value of Pearson Chi-Square= is 30.612, df=3, pvalue<0.001). Younger farmers are less negative to the cultivation of GM forest trees.

There is dependence to level of education (value of Pearson Chi-Square= is 18.651, df=3, p-value<0.001). It is worth to notice that farmers with basic education and university graduates are the most negative to the cultivation of GMT. 10 5 15 No Yes Total No Yes Total 5 20 25 5 10 15

There is dependence to the farm size (value of Pearson Chi-Square= is 43.651, df=3, p-value<0.001). Farmers who own less or equal to 10 acres, responded that would cultivate GMT in 80%.

There is dependence to the type of cultivation (value of Pearson Chi-Square= is 31.406, df=4, p-value<0.001). Farmers. Farmers who cultivate arable and vegetables are these who mostly would accept the cultivation of GMTs.

The Cronbach’s Alpha value is 0.854.

Median 3,50 3,50 3,50 3,00 2,50 2,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 75% 4,00 4,00 5,00 3,00 3,00 3,25 2,00 1,25 1,00

We create a new variable which is the average value of all factors of table 15. Its mean value is 2.17 (standard deviation 0.69).

Males seem to be more positive about cultivation compared to Females (t=4.271, df=14, p-value=0.001).

The willingness of farmers not to cultivate genetically modified products depends on the type of crop (F4,65 = 3.555, p = 0.011). Those with orchards are on average from 0.13 to 2.4 higher willingness not to cultivate genetically modified compared with those with arable (p-value = 0.018). Similarly those who have Orchards have, on average, from 0.1 to 1.7 higher willingness to cultivate non-GM compared to those with Vegetables (p-value = 0.0028).

Std. Deviation ,00000 ,81985 ,35136 ,74724 ,76678 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Upper Bound Bound 2,5556 2,5556 2,7468 3,9198 2,1931 2,6958 2,0718 2,5208 2,3013 2,6670

The willingness of farmers not to cultivate genetically modified products depends on the farm size (F3,66 = 6.130, p = 0.001). Those who have croplands from 11 to 50 acres have, on average from 0.04 to 1.7 units, higher willingness not to cultivate genetically modified comparatively with those who have from 51 to 100 acres (p-value = 0.033). Similarly those who have croplands from 11 to 50 acres have, on average from 0.4 to 1.7, higher willingness not to cultivate genetically modified comparatively with those who have from 101 to 200 acres (p-value = 0.001). Factor Q3a Q3b Q3c Q3d Q3e Q3f Q3g Q3h Q3i Q3j Q3k 25% 2,00 1,00 2,00 1,00 2,25 3,25 1,00 4,00 3,25 1,00 1,00

The willingness of farmers to cultivate genetically modified products depends on the type of crop (F2.27 = 13.764, p = 0.001). Those who cultivate arable are on average from 0.7 to 2.1 higher willingness to cultivate genetically modified compared with those who cultivate forest plantations (p-value = 0.001). Similarly those who cultivate vegetables are on average from 0.3 to 1.5 higher willingness to cultivate genetically modified compared with those who have forest plantations (p-value = 0.001).

The aim of this study was to investigate the attitudes of farmers regarding the GMT. From the beginning there was the limitation of the number of responses. All the responders come from the same area (Evros). So possible generalized conclusions would be unreliable.

Nevertheless the value of the study in precious as it is the first study in Greece which examines the farmers attitudes towards the use of biotechnology in forest tree sector. In this research confirmed the continued negative attitude of the majority of farmers in relation to the cultivation of GMT, which has been recorded by the relevant survey reports Eurobarometer (European Commission - EC, 2010) . In general, elder people with low education, mainly female, with large scale farms seems not to be in favour of cultivating transgenic trees whilst most of the younger, high educated, mainly male, small scale farmers are more positive towards the cultivation of GM trees.

In a constantly changing world, the persistence of the established notions of the past creates rigidities and barriers to future challenges. On the other hand the respect of values and tradition is essential for any organization. Somewhere there must be "balance" one for cultivation or not GMT.

According to Mc Donell et al (2010), the current decade will be important for researchers of trees. Conducting such research could contribute to better information on a subject that for others considered "taboo" and other necessary development. Furthermore the potential developers of such forest tree plantations and paper, wood and woody biomass energy products should structure their marketing and promotion according to the farmers profile that this study developed. Additionally a campaign that will aim to inform public about the use of biotechnology in forest tree sector and its advantages and disadvantages should take place. to

Biotechnology. 23. Trochim W. and Donnelly J.P., (2006) The Research Methods Knowledge. Base (3rd edition). Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning-Atomic Dog. 414

References

1. Broothaerts W.; Mitchell H.J.; Weir B. ; Kaines S.; Smith L.M.; Yang W. ; Mayer J.E. ; Roa-Rodriguez C. and Jefferson R.A. , ( 2005 ) Gene transfer to plants by diverse species of bacteria . Nature , Vol. 433 , No. 7026 , (February , 2005 ), pp. 629 - 633 , ISSN 0028-0836.

2. Clive J. , ( 1996 ) Global Review of the Field Testing and Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: 1986 to 1995". The International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications . Available at: http://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/pdfs/isaaabriefs/Briefs%201.pdf. [Accessed 13 April 2015 ].

3. Coventry P. , ( 2001 ) Forest Certification and Genetically Engineered Trees: Will the two ever be compatible? , Oxford Forestry Institute Occasional Papers, No. 53 .

4. EuropaBio, ( 2012 ) Available at: http://www.europabio.org/what-biotechnology. [Accessed 10 March 2015 ].

5. European Commission - EC , ( 2010 ) Eurobarometer 341 / Wave 73.1, TNS Opinion & Social. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_341_en.pdf. [Accessed 11 April 2015 ].

6. F.A.O. , ( 2004 ) The state of food and agriculture 2003-2004 . Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations , Publishing Management Service, Rome.

7. Fladung M. , Pasonen H.-L . and Walter C. , ( 2010 ) Genetically modified trees and associated environmental concerns in Forests and Genetically Modified Trees , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome , 2010 , p.p. 177 - 202 .

8. Gallardo F. , Ionita L. , Ruohonen-Lehto M. , Harfouche A. , Biricolti S. , Boerjan W. , Glandorf B. , Jouanin L. , Fladung M. , Vettori C. , ( 2011 ) Environmental impact assessment and monitoring of genetically modified trees . BMC Proceedings 2011 5 ( Suppl 7 ): O59 .

9. Gamborg C. and Sandοe P. , ( 2010 ) Ethical considerations regarding genetically modified trees in Forests and Genetically Modified Trees , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome , 2010 , p.p. 163 - 176 .

10. Kousis M. , ( 2009 ) New challenges for 21st century environmental movements: agricultural biotechnology and nanotechnology . In The International Handbook of Environmental Sociology (2nd edition) . Redclift Μ .Ρ. and Woodgate W. (eds.). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

11. Kuiper HA and Kleter GA , ( 2003 ) The scientific basis for risk assessment and regulation of genetically modified foods . Trends Food Sci Technol 14 : 277 - 293 .

12. McDonnell L.M. , Coleman H.D. , French D.G. , Meilan R. and Mansfield S.D. , ( 2010 ) Engineering trees with target traits in Forests and Genetically Modified Trees , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome , 2010 , p.p. 77 - 122 .

13. Palmiter R.D. , Brinster R.L. , Hammer R.E. , Trumbauer M.E. , Rosenfeld M.G. , Birnberg N.C. and Evans R , M. , ( 1982 ) Dramatic growth of mice that develop from eggs microinjected with metallothionein-growth hormone fusion genes . Nature . 300 ( 5893 ): 611 - 615 .

14. Preliminary review of biotechnology in forestry , ( 2004 ) Forestry Department Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , Working Paper FGR/59E, FAO, Rome, Italy.

15. Prescott VE and Hogan SP , ( 2006 ) Genetically modified plants and food hypersensitivity diseases: usage and implications of experimental models for risk assessment . Pharmacol Ther 111 : 374 - 383 .

16. Sedjo R.A. , ( 2004 ) Genetically Engineered Trees: Promise and Concerns , Washington DC: Resources for the Future .

17. Sedjo R.A. , ( 2010 ) Social, legal and regulatory issues related to transgenic trees in Forests and Genetically Modified Trees , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome , 2010 , p.p. 203 - 216 .

18. Strauss A.L. and Corbin J.M. , ( 1998 ) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (2nd edition) . Thousand Oaks , California: Sage Publications Inc.

19. Strauss SH , Schmitt M. and Sedjo R. , ( 2009 ) Forest scientists views on regulatory obstacles to research and development of transgenic forest biotechnology . J For 107 : 350 - 357 .

20. Strid Å. and Brosché M. , ( 2001 ) Opportunities to genetically modify plants to cope with environmental stress . Brit. Food J . 103 : 796 - 800 .

21. The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2 . Use of Terms). United Nations , ( 1992 ) Available at: http://www.cbd.int/convention/text/. [Accessed 22 April 2015 ].

22. Thieman W.J.; Palladino M.A. , ( 2008 ) Introduction Pearson/Benjamin Cummings . ISBN 0-321-49145-9.

23. Trochim W. and Donnelly J.P. , ( 2006 ) The Research Methods Knowledge. Base (3rd edition) . Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning-Atomic Dog.

24. Tsourgiannis L. , Kazana V. , Karasavvoglou A. , Nikolaidis M. Florou G. and Polychronidou P. ( 2013 ). Exploring Consumers' Attitudes towards wood products that could be derived from transgenic plantations in Greece Elsevier Procedia Technology (8 ), 554 - 560 .

25. Tsourgiannis L. , Kazana V. , Karasavvoglou A. , Vettori C. , Fladung M. , SijacicNikolic M. , Ionita L. ( 2014 ), Would consumers be willing to buy woody biomass energy products of transgenic origin? in the Book “EU Crisis and the Role of the Periphery ” Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

26. Tsourgiannis L. , Kazana V. , Iakovoglou V . (2015a) Exploring the potential behavior of consumers towards transgenic forest products: the Greek experience . iForest (early view) : 1 - e7 [online 2015- 01 -13] URL: http://www.sisef.it/iforest/contents/?id= ifor1339 - 007 ( Impact Factor 5ετίας 1 .092).

27. Tsourgiannis L. , Kazana V. , Karasavvoglou A. , Tsourgiannis C.A. , Florou G. and Polychronidou P. , ( 2015b ). Exploring consumers' attitudes towards paper products that could be derived from transgenic plantation in Greece, Int . Journal Data Analysis Techniques and Strategies 7 ( 2 ), 156 - 171

28. Varzakas T.H. , Arvanitoyannis I.S. and Baltas H. , (2007a) The politics and science behind GMO acceptance . Critical Review in Food Science and Nutrition . 47 : 335 - 361 .

29. Varzakas T.H. , Chryssochoidis G. and Argyropoulos , D. , (2007b) Approaches in the risk assessment of genetically modified foods by the Hellenic Food Safety Authority . Food and Chemical Toxicology . 45 : 530 - 542 .

30. W.H.O. , ( 2002 ) 20 questions on genetically modified (GM) foods . Available at: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/en/20questions_en.pdf. [Accessed 22 April 2015 ].

31. Walter C. and Menzies M. , ( 2010 ), Genetic modification as a component of forest biotechnology in Forests and Genetically Modified Trees , Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome , 2010 , p.p. 3 - 18 .

32. Working group headed by Athanasios Tsaftaris, ( 2004 ). The development of agrobiotechnologies until 2015, Technological Foresight in Central Macedonia (In Greek) .

33. Zolotov Yu A. , ( 2003 ) Revealing Genetically Modified Plants and Foodstuff Made on Their Basis , Journal of Analytical Chemistry; Jan2003 , Vol. 58 Issue 1 , p1 .