-CMOS devices suffer from wearout mechanisms resulting in reliability issues. Negative bias temperature instability (NBTI) is one of the dominant ageing effects that can cause threshold voltage shift on PMOS devices and subsequently impact circuit performance. The static noise margin (SNM) of an SRAM cell may be sharply reduced with unbalanced NBTI stress. This will impact SRAM read stability. From our observations of instruction caches, NBTI stress duty cycles for each cache line generally have similar but unbalanced patterns even when running very different programs. Based on the patterns, we propose an algorithm to evaluate the lifetime of instruction caches by running SPICE simulation. The results predict 6 and 7 years NBTI lifetimes of instruction caches for ARM and MIPS architectures respectively. One of the practical solutions is periodically flipping each cell to balance the degradation rate. However the performance benefits in terms of lifetime are not actually proven before. Using the stress patterns and lifetime evaluation algorithm, our work for the first time prove this technique can extend the lifetime of the cache by two orders of magnitude.
As transistor dimensions continue to shrink, reliability is
one of the most significant remaining concerns for CMOS
technology [
The NBTI effect on CMOS memory devices such as SRAM
cache has received much attention [
Our work presents a method to evaluate NBTI lifetime in instruction caches. The contributions are as follows: 1) a novel analysis of the instruction cache that shows the NBTI stress duty cycles for each cache line generally have similar patterns even when running very different programs; 2) an algorithm of running SPICE simulation to predict the NBTI lifetime for the instruction cache based on this observation; 3) lifetime extension of cell flipping in instruction caches is proven by using the stress patterns and lifetime evaluation algorithm.
This paper is organized as follows. Section II presents the theory and simulation results of NBTI on both a single transistor and an SRAM cell. In Section III, we demonstrate that the pattern of NBTI stress locality does not vary much between different programs and from this cell lifetimes are calculated.
The lifetime evaluation algorithm and the simulation results for instruction caches in ARM and MIPS architectures are presented in Section IV, while Section V describes the lifetime extension by cell flipping. Finally, the paper is concluded in Section VI.
II. NBTI EFFECT AND SRAM CELL DEGRADATION A. Impact of NBTI on Single PMOS Transistor
NBTI can result in an increased Vth over time. A PMOS transistor can be switched between the NBTI stress phase and the recovery phase. Si-H bonds are disassociated under negative bias condition (Vgs = VDD) and hydrogen spaces and traps are produced at the oxide interface. These hydrogen spaces then diffuse away. Once the stress is removed (Vgs = 0), some bonds recover because of recombination with hydrogen. Some traps still remain and therefore the recovery is partial.
Thus, the Vth shift is proportional to the density of traps
at the oxide interface [
In [
Vth(t) = pKv2↵ Tclk 1 t1/2n
!2n t = 1 2⇠ 1te + p⇠ 2C(1 2tox + p Ct ↵ )Tclk !
(1) where ↵ is the key parameter – the stress duty cycle. Kv is a function of supply voltage, temperature and technology while Tclk is the equivalent stress-recovery period. n is either 1/4 or 1/6 depending on the diffusion spaces (H or H2).
C is the diffusion speed in the gate material. ⇠ 1 and ⇠ 2 represent the annealing probabilities in the oxide and the gate respectively. Finally, te is the effective oxide thickness indicating the diffusion distance in the oxide and is less than or equal to the oxide thickness, tox.
Based on the long-term NBTI model, above, and data from
[
B. Impact of NBTI on 6-T SRAM Cell
WL
BL
MN3
MP1
Q MN1
VDD
MP2 Q MN2
MN4
BL
Figure 2 shows a basic 6-T SRAM cell, in which only the
pull-up transistors, MP1 and MP2, would suffer from NBTI
[
The static noise margin (SNM) is the biggest noise voltage the SRAM cell can tolerate. Vth mismatch on an SRAM cell can result in an asymmetric transfer characteristic and thereby reduce the SNM, Figure 3.
Using the long-term NBTI model in Equation (1) to modify the SPICE model, the degradation in the SRAM cell can be simulated, Figure 4. A cell with 50% stress duty cycle ages most slowly because MP1 and MP2 are matched. Uneven stress accelerates ageing.
III. STRESS LOCALITY OF INSTRUCTION CACHE
The observation is noticed that the data stored in a cache shows very similar patterns when executing different benchmark programs. We ran a test on the instruction caches of ARM and MIPS architectures, using GEM5. 16 benchmark programs, all with more than ten thousand instructions, were chosen. The signal probability of each bit of each cache word is shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that some bits preserve the same values in most locations, consequently leading to NBTI stress locality.
This phenomenon can be explained as following. For any program, we can expect some types of instruction to be used more frequently than the others. Take the ARM processor results in Figure 5a as an example. The most significant four bits are the condition field and ”1110” is used for unconditional instructions. The number of unconditional instructions is much bigger than that of conditional ones in any program. As a result, the most significant four bits have a high probability of being ”1110” as seen in Figure 5a.
If the SNM degrades to a value smaller than expected noise, the storage data might be flipped, which causes a failure when the data is read out. This gives the NBTI lifetime of the instruction cache. 50% signal probability will give the longest lifetime because both inverters in the SRAM cell age at the same rate and so are not mismatched. The bit with the probability furthest from 50% would fail first, which determines the lifetime of the whole SRAM array.
IV. NBTI LIFETIME EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTION
CACHE
According to the stress locality in last section, NBTI lifetime of a instruction cache is predictable. We propose Algorithm1 to evaluate the lifetime. This algorithm uses Monte Workshop on Early Reliability Modeling for Aging and Variability in Silicon Systems – March 18th 2016 – Co-Located with DATE 2016 - Dresden, Germany Copyright © 2016 for the individual papers by the papers' authors. Copying permitted for private and academic purposes. This volume is published and copyrighted by its editors. Carlo simulations to detect the moment when stored data is corrupted and also calculates the flipped bit rate over the whole instruction cache.
Algorithm 1 SRAM cache lifetime evaluation 1: procedure LIFEEVA 2: i 0 3: j 1 4: t 0 5: Monte Carlo: 6: ↵ 1 ⇠ N (µi, i2) 7: ↵ 2 1 ↵ 1 8: Vth1 FNBT I (↵ 1, t) 9: Vth2 FNBT I (↵ 2, t) 10: run SP ICE simulation 11: if Data f lipping error occurs then 12: lif etime t 13: else if j < total iteration times then 14: j j + 1 15: else if i < instruction length 16: i i + 1 17: else 18: t t + 1 19: update f lipped bit rate 20: goto Monte Carlo
1 then . i indicates current bit location . j indicates current iteration times . t indicates current year
. Normal distribution . Implement NBTI model
V. LIFETIME EXTENSION BY PERIODIC CELL FLIPPING
The motivation for previous cell flipping work, [
However, since the storage value is considered unpredictable in that work, the performance benefits of periodical cell flipping are not actually proven. On the other hand, in our work, we note that the NBTI stress in the instruction cache stays constant over time.
Figure 7 shows the new probability mean values and standard deviations if cell flipping is applied. By definition, the mean values of the probabilities are at 50%. From this, the new predicted lifetimes can be calculated, as shown in Figure 8. As can be seen, for the same operating conditions, data failures start to occur after more than 300 years in both ARM and MIPS processors. While the exact figure is, of course, dependent on the modelling, it is unarguable that a significant extension to the lifetime of an SRAM instruction cache is achievable by simply flipping cell values periodically.
To model typical operation, the storage value in each cell is set to both 1 and 0 but with different probabilities: we assume NBTI stress duty cycles are distributed with normal distributions with the means and standard deviations shown in
Rapid shrinkage of CMOS transistors has led to concerns about reliability risks such as ageing. The effect of NBTI on the Static Noise Margin of SRAM-based instruction cache is discussed in this paper. NBTI directly affects the Workshop on Early Reliability Modeling for Aging and Variability in Silicon Systems – March 18th 2016 – Co-Located with DATE 2016 - Dresden, Germany Copyright © 2016 for the individual papers by the papers' authors. Copying permitted for private and academic purposes. This volume is published and copyrighted by its editors.
(a) CPU model: 32-bit ARM threshold voltage of PMOS devices and thereby impacts on the performance. In an SRAM cell, an unbalanced NBTI stress duty cycle can reduce the SNM and affect the read stability. From our observations, the NBTI stress duty cycles for an instruction cache generally has similar patterns even running very different programs. Therefore the NBTI lifetime is predictable, and our results suggest 6 or 7 year lifetimes for instruction caches in ARM and MIPS processors by using the proposed lifetime evaluation method. Additionally, the benefit of lifetime extension by periodically flipping each SRAM cell is presented using our proposed stress patterns and lifetime evaluation algorithm. It has been shown the instruction cache lifetimes can be extended by two orders of magnitude by this technique.