=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1766/oaei16_paper12
|storemode=property
|title=Integrating phenotype ontologies with PhenomeNET
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1766/oaei16_paper12.pdf
|volume=Vol-1766
|authors=Miguel Angel Rodríguez García,Georgios V. Gkoutos,Paul N. Schofield,Robert Hoehndorf
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/semweb/Rodriguez-Garcia16
}}
==Integrating phenotype ontologies with PhenomeNET==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1766/oaei16_paper12.pdf
Integrating phenotype ontologies with
PhenomeNET
Miguel Angel Rodrı́guez Garcı́a1 , Georgios V Gkoutos2 , Paul N Schofield3 , and
Robert Hoehndorf1
1
Computational Bioscience Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science
and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, KSA
{miguel.rodriguezgarcia,robert.hoehndorf}@kaust.edu.sa
2
College of Medical and Dental Sciences, Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences,
Centre for Computational Biology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15
2TT, UK,
g.gkoutos@bham.ac.uk
3
Department of Physiology, Development & Neuroscience, University of Cambridge,
Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
pns12@hermes.cam.ac.uk
Abstract. PhenomeNET is a system for disease gene prioritization that
includes as one of its components an ontology designed to integrate phe-
notype ontologies. While not applicable to matching arbitrary ontologies,
PhenomeNET can be used to identify related phenotypes in different
species, including human, mouse, zebrafish, nematode worm, fruit fly,
and yeast. Here, we apply the PhenomeNET to identify related classes
from four phenotype and disease ontologies using automated reasoning.
We demonstrate that we can identify a large number of mappings, some
of which require automated reasoning and cannot easily be identified
through lexical approaches alone.
Keywords: PhenomeNET, phenotype ontology
1 System Presentation
1.1 State, purpose, general statement
PhenomeNET [1] was built in 2011 as a system for disease gene discovery
and prioritization. PhenomeNET consists of an ontology integrating species-
specific phenotype ontologies based on the PATO ontology [2] and relations be-
tween anatomical structures and physiological processes, a database of gene-to-
phenotype associations, and a measure of similarity between sets of phenotypes.
Within PhenomeNET, species-specific phenotype ontologies are combined so
that phenotypes observed in different species can be compared directly. The main
application of PhenomeNET is the prioritization of candidate genes for human
diseases by comparing human disease phenotypes to existing gene-phenotype
associations derived from model organisms. In particular, human phenotypes
associated with a disease can be compared to phenotypes observed in mouse or
other model organisms using the integrated PhenomeNET ontology, and simi-
larity between phenotypes can then be used to indicate the genetic basis of a
disease. PhenomeNET has been successfully used to find candidate genes for dis-
eases [1, 3], identify novel pathways [4], and repurpose drugs using mouse model
phenotypes [5, 6].
Here, we use the PhenomeNET ontology to identify alignments between phe-
notypes in different species. We present three versions of the PhenomeNET on-
tology; the first version consists of the plain ontology using only the axioms
provided in the Human Phenotype Ontology (HPO) [7] and the Mammalian
Phenotype Ontology (MP) [8]; the second version uses additional lexical map-
pings and represents them as equivalent class axioms in the ontology; the third
version further uses mappings generated by the AgreementMakerLight [9] to
generate equivalent class axioms between classes in the PhenomeNET ontology
and the Disease Ontology (DO) [10] and the Orphanet Rare Disease Ontology
(ORDO) [11].
1.2 Specific techniques used
Phenotype classes in the HP and MP ontologies are formally defined using the
Entity-Quality (EQ) pattern [2, 12]. Based on the EQ patterns, a phenotype is
decomposed into an affected entity and a quality that specifies how the entity
is affected. The Entity will usually be a class taken either from an anatomy on-
tology or a physiology ontology. For example, the phenotype class macroglossia
(HP:0000158) describes an anatomical abnormality and is defined as equivalent
to ’has part’ some (’increased size’ and (’inheres in’ some tongue)
and (’has modifier’ some abnormal)), relying on the entity tongue (from
the UBERON anatomy ontology) and the quality increased size (from PATO) in
its definition. The class abnormality of salivation (HP:0100755) is a physiologi-
cal abnormality and is defined as equivalent to ’has part’ some (quality and
(’inheres in’ some ’saliva secretion’) and (’has modifier’ some abnormal)),
where saliva secretion is a class from the biological process branch of the GO.
The general pattern for defining a phenotype class in both the HP and MP
ontologies, given Entity E and Quality Q, is to declare them equivalent to ’has
part’ some (Q and ’inheres in’ some E). In some cases, the Entity E is fur-
ther constrained, e.g., by a location in which a certain process may happen. The
“E” classes are generally taken either from the UBERON cross-species anatomy
ontology [13] or from the GO. As the use of anatomy and physiology ontologies
(UBERON and GO) is shared between MP and HP, it should be possible to in-
tegrate both ontologies directly, based on the axiom patterns used to constrain
their classes. However, the type of axiom pattern used in both ontologies results
in a classification that is primarily based on the PATO ontology, as the Quality
Q is the main feature that distinguishes different classes.
In the PhenomeNET ontology, we rewrite all axioms in HP and MP using
a pattern-based approach that allows us to utilize axioms from anatomy and
physiology ontologies and enrich the classification of phenotype classes [14]. In
general, we declare phenotype classes defined using an Entity E and Quality
Q as equivalent to ’has part’ some (E and has-quality some Q) and we
further add grouping classes that are defined as equivalent to ’has part’ some
((’part of’ some E) and has-quality some Q). The aim of rewriting the
axioms is to base the classification of phenotype classes primarily on anatomical
or physiological entities instead of the quality, and to utilize the axioms involving
parthood in anatomy and physiology ontologies. Crucially, all axioms we generate
fall in the OWL 2 EL profile [15]. The first version of the PhenomeNET ontology
(PhenomeNET-Plain) consists only of these axioms and no additional mappings.
In addition to this knowledge-based approach to linking the HP and MP
ontologies, we also add lexical mappings, mappings derived from cross-references
in the ontologies [3], and mappings between HP and MP from BioPortal [16].
Each mapping is added as a single equivalent classes axiom to the first version
of the ontology (PhenomeNET-Plain) to generate a version of the PhenomeNET
ontology with mappings (PhenomeNET-Map).
Neither version of these ontologies contains the DO or ORDO ontologies,
despite there being a significant overlap between the four ontologies. Since nei-
ther DO nor ORDO contain axioms that follow a similar pattern to the axioms
in HP and MP, we rely exclusively on lexical mappings to integrate DO and
ORDO. We use the AgreementMaker Light (AML) [9] in its default settings to
generate mappings between HP and DO, HP and ORDO, MP and DO, MP and
ORDO, and DO and ORDO. We then add an equivalent class axiom for each
mapping AML identifies and that has a score by AML over greater than 0.7.
The resulting ontology contains HP, MP, ORDO, and DO, and can be used to
generate mappings between these ontologies.
All versions of the PhenomeNET ontology contain the classes from the HP
and MP ontologies as well as the subclass axioms between named classes as-
serted in these ontologies. Furthermore, the PhenomeNET ontology imports
the ChEBI [17] and Mouse Pathology [18] ontologies using an OWL import
statement. Additionally, PhenomeNET includes all classes from the UBERON
anatomy ontology [13], the Gene Ontology [19], the BioSpatial Ontology [20],
the Zebrafish Anatomy ontology [21], the PATO ontology [2], the Cell Ontology
[22], and the Neuro-Behavior Ontology [23]. However, these ontologies are not
directly imported but rather pre-processed so that all disjointness axioms from
these ontologies are excluded while all other axioms contained within them are
included in the PhenomeNET ontology. The aim of this pre-processing step is to
avoid unsatisfiable classes due to different conceptualizations between anatomy
and phenotype ontologies, or within anatomy ontologies (Zebrafish Anatomy and
UBERON).
Mappings between ontologies included in PhenomeNET are generated using
the ELK reasoner [24]. We use ELK to classify the PhenomeNET ontology and
identify pairs of equivalent classes C1 and C2 that belong to the ontologies to
be aligned. These constitute equivalent class mappings. Furthermore, subclass
and superclass mappings are generated through queries for sub- and superclasses
using ELK.
Ontology Number of classes Number of axioms Mappings added
HP-MP 219,423 1,399,411 0
HP-MP+mappings 219,423 1,400,570 1,160(AML), 639(BioPortal)
HP-MP+DO-ORDO 241,817 1,631,543 1489(AML), 1018(BioPortal)
HP-MP: 1,160 (AML),
639(BioPortal);
DO-MP: 423 (AML);
DO-HP: 1,074;
ORDO-MP: 151;
ORDO-HP: 531;
Table 1. Number of classes, axioms and mappings in the PhenomeNET ontologies
1.3 Adaptations made for the evaluation
Within PhenomeNET, we use an ontology consisting only of the (rewritten) ax-
ioms in MP and HP as well as equivalent class axioms derived from explicit
mappings between HP and MP (expressed as xref annotation properties). For
the evaluation, we further used the AML [9] to generate additional mappings.
The AML mappings were generated using the default settings of AML with a
confidence cutoff of 0.7. In the case of DOID and ORDO mappings we addition-
ally included 18 mappings derived from BioPortal. Our systems relying on these
mappings were submitted as separate submissions.
Initially, we developed our matching system to take into account not only
the direct sub- and super-classes, but also all inferred classes. We modified our
system to output only the most specific mappings instead for the evaluation;
Table 2 shows both the number of direct and inferred mappings.
1.4 Link to the system, parameters file, alignments
Our submission consists of two modules: PhenomeNetBridge and PhenomeNet-
Matcher. The PhenomeNetBridge module wraps the SEALS infrastructure for
the evaluation, and the PhenomeNetMatcher module performs the mappings,
using one of three ontologies. Source code for the matching system, including pa-
rameter files, and the generated alignments, are available at http://github.com/bio-
ontology-research-group/OAEI2016. Code to generate the PhenomeNET ontol-
ogy is available at
https://github.com/bio-ontology-research-group/phenomeblast/tree/master/fixphenotypes.
2 Results
2.1 Phenotype ontologies: HP and MP
The PhenomeNET ontology is primarily intended to integrate the HP and MP
ontologies. Using the axioms in the ontology alone (PhenomeNET-Plain sub-
mission), we identify 745 equivalent classes between the HP and MP ontologies
Ontology HP-MP (≡) HP-MP (v) DO-ORDO (≡) DO-ORDO (v)
HP-MP 745 2,707 (96,278) 0 0
HP-MP+mappings 1,536 3,999 (107,268) 0 0
HP-MP+DO-ORDO 1,582 4,144 (112,366) 1,527 4,576 (16,838)
Table 2. Equivalent and sub-equivalent classes found in the experiments
Ontology Precision Recall F-Measure Found Correct Reference
HP-MP task
HP-MP 3.90 % 40.80% 7.10% 6,730 261 639
HP-MP+mappings 6 % 100 % 11.30% 10,698 639 639
HP-MP+DO-ORDO 5.80 % 100 % 10.90% 11,086 639 639
DOID-ORDO task
HP-MP 0% 0% 0% 0 0 1,018
HP-MP+mappings 0% 0% 0% 0 0 1,018
HP-MP+DO-ORDO 12.70 % 99.90 % 22.50 % 8,036 1,017 1,018
Table 3. Precision, Recall, F-measure in HP-MP and DOID-ORDO experiments
(see Table 2). These correspond to a recall of 40.8% with respect to the refer-
ence mappings provided (see Table 3). Additionally, a large number of sub- and
super-class mappings can be identified based on querying the ontology using the
ELK reasoner [24] for sub- or super-classes in the two ontologies.
The number of pairs of equivalent classes identified increases to 1,536 when
adding explicit mappings derived from AML. Of these, 370 are generated both by
automated reasoning and are included in AML, 791 are generated from the AML-
derived equivalent classes axioms, and 375 could only be derived through the
automated reasoning. Total recall with respect to the reference mappings is 100%
in this version of PhenomeNET. Additionally, we observe an improvement in the
number of equivalent class mappings when adding the ORDO and DO ontologies
to the PhenomeNET ontology. The increase in mappings (from 1,536 to 1,582
classes) is a result of additional inferences obtained from adding the mappings
from HP and MP to ORDO and DO, and combining them with the axioms in the
PhenomeNET ontology. For example, we infer a new mapping between decreased
IgG level (MP:0001805) and agammaglobulinemia (HP:0004432) based on the
equivalence axioms between both classes and agammaglobulinemia (DOID:2583)
generated by AML (based on the shared synonym “hypogammaglobulinemia”
between the class in DO and MP). Table 3 summarizes our results with respect
to the reference mappings provided in the challenge.
2.2 Disease ontologies: ORDO and DO
PhenomeNET is primarily designed for ontologies that follow the Entity-Quality
definition pattern based on the PATO ontology. Neither ORDO nor DO follow
this pattern, and ORDO and DO are primarily included in the PhenomeNET
ontology through equivalent class axioms based on lexical mappings generated
by AML. We achieve a recall of 99.9% with the PhenomeNET-Full ontology. No-
tably, the mappings we generate are increased by including HP and MP. For ex-
ample, we identify a mapping between mandibulofacial dysostosis (ORPHANET:155899)
and treacher collins syndrome (DOID:2908), based on common AML-generated
mappings to mandibulofacial dysostosis (HP:0005321).
2.3 OAEI evaluation
In order to carry out the final evaluation, the OAEI utilized the SEALS in-
frastructure executed in a Ubuntu Laptop with an Intel Core i7-4600U CPU @
2.10GHz x 4 and allocating 15Gb of RAM. The system carried out the evaluation
according to following criteria:
– Precision and Recall with respect to a voted reference alignment automati-
cally generated by merging/voting the outputs of the participating systems.
– Recall with respect to alignment manually generated.
– Manual assesment of a subset of generating mappings.
– Performance in other tracks.
Different mappings were used to evaluate the participating systems: i) Silver
standard with vote 2, ii) Silver standard with vote 3, iii) manually dataset and
manual assessment. In the first dataset, PhenomeNET including all mappings
reached an F-measure of 0.82 in the HP-MP task, and 0.89 in the DO-ORDO
task. In the second evaluation, although the system PhenoMP was able to find
the largest number of mappings in HP-MP task, it reached an F-measure of 0.76
in the HP-MP task and 0.94 in the DO-ORDO task. When evaluating against
manually created mappings, PhenomeNET achieved a recall of 0.897 in the HP-
MP task but could not generate any new mappings between DO and ORDO. For
this task, PhenomeNET achieved a precision of 1.0 in the manual assessment of
a subset of the generated mappings.
3 General comments
3.1 Comments on the results
PhenomeNET is a system to match phenotypes; as such, it is not a system
that can be applied to match ontologies in general. The axiom-based approach
in PhenomeNET can be applied to any ontologies that utilize PATO and the
Entity-Quality definition patterns [2]. In particular, PhenomeNET can not only
be used to integrate MP and HPO, but also has been used to further integrate
yeast, fly, worm, slime mold, and fish phenotypes [1, 25]. Furthermore, the com-
bination of semantic matching (using automated reasoning) and lexical matching
in PhenomeNET mitigates some of the limitations of using lexical approaches
alone, and we demonstrate this by inferring several hundred mappings between
HP and MP that cannot be inferred using AML.
However, relying on manually created axioms also has several limitations.
In particular, the axioms are created by domain experts, and only about half
the classes in MP and HP are constrained by an Entity-Quality based axiom.
Furthermore, the quality of the axioms is difficult to assess, and there are distinct
differences between HP and MP in how the classes are constrained.
3.2 Discussions on the way to improve the proposed system
One of the main limitations in PhenomeNET is the need for manually created
axioms that constrain classes in phenotype ontologies. A possible solution to
this approach would be to generate phenotype ontologies fully automatically
using anatomy and physiology ontologies as templates and applying the axiom
patterns we use in the PhenomeNET [26].
Another limitation of PhenomeNET is the reliance on OWL 2 EL which limits
the expressivity of axiom patterns. The choice is mainly due to the size of the
PhenomeNET ontology and the complexity of reasoning. However, more complex
axiom patterns would enable more comprehensive classification of phenotypes
involving absences and abnormalities [14]; experiments with an updated ontology
will likely require improvement in OWL reasoning technologies.
4 Conclusions
We have developed an ontology matching system for disease and phenotype on-
tologies. We generated three different version of the PhenomeNet ontology, each
with different information and ontologies included. PhenomeNET is primarily
based on deductive inference and automated reasoning, and while it can utilize
lexically derived mappings in the ontology generation process, it does not on
its own include any lexical matching algorithms. Our results demonstrate that
a combination of lexical and semantic approaches may improve upon mappings
between ontologies generated using only one of these methods.
References
1. Hoehndorf, R., Schofield, P.N., Gkoutos, G.V.: Phenomenet: a whole-phenome
approach to disease gene discovery. Nucleic Acids Res 39(18) (2011) e119
2. Gkoutos, G.V., Green, E.C., Mallon, A.M.M., Hancock, J.M., Davidson, D.: Using
ontologies to describe mouse phenotypes. Genome biology 6(1) (2005) R5
3. Hoehndorf, R., Schofield, P.N., Gkoutos, G.V.: An integrative, translational ap-
proach to understanding rare and orphan genetically based diseases. Interface
Focus 3(2) (2013) 20120055
4. Hoehndorf, R., Dumontier, M., Gkoutos, G.V.: Identifying aberrant pathways
through integrated analysis of knowledge in pharmacogenomics. Bioinformatics
28(16) (2012) 2169–2175
5. Hoehndorf, R., Oellrich, A., Rebholz-Schuhmann, D., Schofield, P.N., Gkoutos,
G.V.: Linking PharmGKB to phenotype studies and animal models of disease for
drug repurposing. Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing (PSB) (2012) 388–399
6. Hoehndorf, R., Hiebert, T., Hardy, N.W., Schofield, P.N., Gkoutos, G.V., Dumon-
tier, M.: Mouse model phenotypes provide information about human drug targets.
Bioinformatics 30(5) (2014) 719–725
7. Köhler, S., Doelken, S.C., Mungall, C.J., Bauer, S., Firth, H.V., Bailleul-Forestier,
I., Black, G.C.M., Brown, D.L., Brudno, M., Campbell, J., FitzPatrick, D.R., Ep-
pig, J.T., Jackson, A.P., Freson, K., Girdea, M., Helbig, I., Hurst, J.A., Jähn, J.,
Jackson, L.G., Kelly, A.M., Ledbetter, D.H., Mansour, S., Martin, C.L., Moss, C.,
Mumford, A., Ouwehand, W.H., Park, S.M., Riggs, E.R., Scott, R.H., Sisodiya,
S., Vooren, S.V., Wapner, R.J., Wilkie, A.O.M., Wright, C.F., Vulto-van Silfhout,
A.T., Leeuw, N.d., de Vries, B.B.A., Washingthon, N.L., Smith, C.L., Westerfield,
M., Schofield, P., Ruef, B.J., Gkoutos, G.V., Haendel, M., Smedley, D., Lewis, S.E.,
Robinson, P.N.: The human phenotype ontology project: linking molecular biology
and disease through phenotype data. Nucleic Acids Res 42(D1) (2014) D966–D974
8. Smith, C.L., Goldsmith, C.A.W., Eppig, J.T.: The mammalian phenotype ontology
as a tool for annotating, analyzing and comparing phenotypic information. Genome
Biol 6(1) (2004) R7 DOI:10.1186/gb-2004-6-1-r7.
9. Faria, D., Pesquita, C., Santos, E., Palmonari, M., Cruz, I.F., Couto, F.M. In:
The AgreementMakerLight Ontology Matching System. Springer Berlin Heidel-
berg, Berlin, Heidelberg (2013) 527–541
10. Kibbe, W.A., Arze, C., Felix, V., Mitraka, E., Bolton, E., Fu, G., Mungall, C.J.,
Binder, J.X., Malone, J., Vasant, D., Parkinson, H., Schriml, L.M.: Disease on-
tology 2015 update: an expanded and updated database of human diseases for
linking biomedical knowledge through disease data. Nucleic Acids Res 43 (2014)
D1071–D1078
11. Sarntivijai, S., Vasant, D., Jupp, S., Saunders, G., Bento, A.P., Gonzalez, D.,
Betts, J., Hasan, S., Koscielny, G., Dunham, I., Parkinson, H., Malone, J.: Linking
rare and common disease: mapping clinical disease-phenotypes to ontologies in
therapeutic target validation. Journal of Biomedical Semantics 7(1) (2016) 1–11
12. Mungall, C., Gkoutos, G., Smith, C., Haendel, M., Lewis, S., Ashburner, M.: In-
tegrating phenotype ontologies across multiple species. Genome Biol 11(1) (2010)
R2+
13. Mungall, C., Torniai, C., Gkoutos, G., Lewis, S., Haendel, M.: Uberon, an integra-
tive multi-species anatomy ontology. Genome Biology 13(1) (2012) R5
14. Hoehndorf, R., Oellrich, A., Rebholz-Schuhmann, D.: Interoperability between
phenotype and anatomy ontologies. Bioinformatics 26(24) (10 2010) 3112 – 3118
15. Motik, B., Grau, B.C., Horrocks, I., Wu, Z., Fokoue, A., Lutz, C.: Owl 2 web on-
tology language: Profiles. Recommendation, World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
(2009)
16. Noy, N.F., Shah, N.H., Whetzel, P.L., Dai, B., Dorf, M., Griffith, N., Jonquet, C.,
Rubin, D.L., Storey, M.A.A., Chute, C.G., Musen, M.A.: Bioportal: ontologies and
integrated data resources at the click of a mouse. Nucleic acids research 37(Web
Server issue) (July 2009) W170–173
17. Degtyarenko, K., Matos, P., Ennis, M., Hastings, J., Zbinden, M., McNaught, A.,
Alcantara, R., Darsow, M., Guedj, M., Ashburner, M.: ChEBI: a database and
ontology for chemical entities of biological interest. Nucleic Acids Research (2007)
18. Schofield, P.N., Sundberg, J.P., Sundberg, B.A., McKerlie, C., Gkoutos, G.V.: The
mouse pathology ontology, mpath; structure and applications. Journal of Biomed-
ical Semantics 4(1) (2013) 1–8
19. Ashburner, M., Ball, C.A., Blake, J.A., Botstein, D., Butler, H., Cherry, M.J.,
Davis, A.P., Dolinski, K., Dwight, S.S., Eppig, J.T., Harris, M.A., Hill, D.P.,
Tarver, L.I., Kasarskis, A., Lewis, S., Matese, J.C., Richardson, J.E., Ringwald,
M., Rubin, G.M., Sherlock, G.: Gene ontology: tool for the unification of biology.
Nature Genetics 25(1) (May 2000) 25–29
20. Balhoff, J.P., Mik, I., Yoder, M.J., Mullins, P.L., Deans, A.R.: A semantic model
for species description applied to the ensign wasps (hymenoptera: Evaniidae) of
new caledonia. Systematic Biology 62(5) (2013) 639–659
21. Dahdul, W.M., Balhoff, J.P., Engeman, J., Grande, T., Hilton, E.J., Kothari, C.,
Lapp, H., Lundberg, J.G., Midford, P.E., Vision, T.J., Westerfield, M., Mabee,
P.M.: Evolutionary characters, phenotypes and ontologies: curating data from the
systematic biology literature. PLoS One 5(5) (2010) e10708
22. Bard, J., Rhee, S.Y., Ashburner, M.: An ontology for cell types. Genome Biology
6(2) (2005)
23. Hoehndorf, R., Hancock, J.M., Hardy, N.W., Mallon, A.M., Schofield, P.N., Gk-
outos, G.V.: Analyzing gene expression data in mice with the Neuro Behavior
Ontology. Mamm Genome 25(1-2) (2014) 32–40
24. Kazakov, Y., Krötzsch, M., Simancik, F.: The incredible elk. Journal of Automated
Reasoning 53(1) (2014) 1–61
25. Hoehndorf, R., Hardy, N.W., Osumi-Sutherland, D., Tweedie, S., Schofield, P.N.,
Gkoutos, G.V.: Systematic analysis of experimental phenotype data reveals gene
functions. PLoS ONE 8(4) (04 2013) e60847
26. Hoehndorf, R., Harris, M.A., Herre, H., Rustici, G., Gkoutos, G.V.: Semantic
integration of physiology phenotypes with an application to the cellular phenotype
ontology. Bioinformatics 28(13) (2012) 1783–1789