=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1821/W1_paper4
|storemode=property
|title=Context Modeling for Knowledge Management Systems
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1821/W1_paper4.pdf
|volume=Vol-1821
|authors=Kurt Sandkuhl
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/wm/Sandkuhl17
}}
==Context Modeling for Knowledge Management Systems==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1821/W1_paper4.pdf
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Context Modeling for Knowledge Management Systems
Kurt Sandkuhl
Rostock University, Institute of Computer Science, 18059 Rostock, Germany
Abstract. Context-awareness is a common feature of contemporary knowledge
management systems (KMS). The intended effect of context-awareness is to tai-
lor appearance, functionality and behavior of KMS to the needs and individual
preferences of knowledge workers and to contribute to flexibility in organiza-
tional KMS use by supporting the integration of knowledge use into work pro-
cesses. The variability of organizational and individual tasks is essential for un-
derstanding context in organizations. Context modeling methods have been
proposed which analyze this variability and identify context elements. This pa-
per investigates whether there are recurring context elements across organiza-
tions and how these recurring elements could be used to improve context mod-
eling methods and KMS configuration processes.
Keywords: Context modeling, knowledge management systems, variability
modeling
1 Introduction
Context-awareness has emerged from a special feature of niche applications to a
characteristic of most knowledge management systems. The intended effect of con-
text-awareness is to tailor appearance, functionality and behavior of knowledge man-
agement systems (KMS) to the needs of knowledge workers and to contribute to flex-
ibility in organizational KMS [2] use by easing the implementation of knowledge-
intensive work processes. The importance of context-awareness in KM is largely
undisputed. Context-awareness basically aims at understanding all relevant infor-
mation required for knowledge use of an organization or an actor (the context) and
applying this understanding in organizational and technical KM solutions and systems
(cf. section 2 for a more detailed discussion).
The focus of this paper is on the elements of ‘context’ and to understand whether
there are recurring elements in context models for different organizations. Such recur-
ring elements could indicate potential for improving both, functionality of KMS by
extending and emphasizing functionality and content relevant for the recurring con-
texts, and context modeling approaches by adding aids or guidelines to early identify
recurring context parts and thus making the modeling process more efficient. The
work builds upon an earlier developed method for context modelling and on experi-
ences from knowledge management projects in different kinds of organizations. From
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our perspective, the variability of organizational and individual tasks is essential for
understanding context. We argue that making context elements explicit by capturing
them in a context model eases the configuration and adaptation of generic knowledge
management platforms to solutions for specific organizations more efficient.
The research questions investigated in the paper are
What are recurring context elements of knowledge management systems relevant
across single organizations?
How can recurring context elements be applied for improving context modeling
methods and implementation of context-aware knowledge management?
Furthermore, the paper aims at motivating and demonstrating the modeling and
analysis of context in knowledge management.
The paper is structured as follows: section 2 briefly describes the theoretical back-
ground for our work. Section 3 summarizes the research approach used. Section 4
presents cases of organizational knowledge management which were subject to con-
text modeling and identification of recurring context elements. Section 5 presents
selected context models and recurring context elements which were the result of con-
text model analysis. Section 6 summarizes the work and draws conclusions.
2 Background
This section summarizes the background for our work which includes characteris-
tics of context-awareness (2.1), context-aware knowledge management (2.2) and
methods for context modeling (2.3).
2.1 Context-Awareness
‘Context-awareness’ emerged from a special and innovative feature of niche applica-
tions to a characteristic of many IT Systems in modern enterprises. Dey’s seminal
work defined context as information characterizing the situation of an entity [1] and
paved the way for context-aware assistive systems. Nowadays, groupware systems,
knowledge portals and other information systems used to support KM provide mech-
anisms to adapt to the users’ situation on demand.
However, design and development of context-awareness still require substantial
engineering work, i.e. there is no general development methodology for context-
aware systems. One reason for this probably is the variety of interpretations of the
term context in the area of engineering [3, 5]. An essential part of developing context
based systems is to analyze and conceptualize the elements of the specific context
required for the application under development, including their dependencies and
mechanism of use. The context is also required during runtime of a context-aware
system, i.e. the context model is not only a conceptualization but has to be reflected in
appropriate information structures and instantiated in the actual system.
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2.2 Context-aware Knowledge Management
The field of KM attracts researchers from diverse disciplines with different perspec-
tives, theories and interest in the field. At least two different perspectives on KMS
have to be differentiated:
KMS from an organizational perspective: These systems describe how to establish
systematic KM in an organization in terms of activities and organizational structures
required. Well-known approaches sin this area are the ‘building block’ model pro-
posed by [7] and the SECI model [6].
KMS from a technology perspective, i.e., IT-systems supporting organizational
KM. In this area, the architecture proposal for such systems of [4] and the differentia-
tion between various knowledge services as components of this architecture is often
applied. Maier distinguishes several layers in a KMS architecture (access, personali-
zation, knowledge service, integration, and infrastructure layer) and four basic ser-
vices (publication, search, collaboration and learning) in the architecture’s knowledge
service layer.
In both perspectives, it is acknowledged that context plays an important role, either
for the process of individual knowledge generation from information, the process of
understanding [6] or the creation of new knowledge [8]. IT-systems supporting KM
often explicitly include components for ‘contextualization’ (knowledge portals) or
contain personalization or individualization features which aim at adapting to a cer-
tain user and the actual context of use [4].
2.3 Context Modeling Methods
A systematic literature review (SLR) performed by Koç et al. [3] on the state of the
art of context modelling methods in IS research showed that the term context is wide-
ly used in computer science, but the method support for developing context models is
scarce. The term “method” is used synonymously with “development steps” or “mod-
elling approaches” and Model Driven Development (MDD) techniques are frequently
applied when eliciting context models. Hoyos et al. [9] present a domain specific
language (DSL) and show steps on how to model context quality. Hussein et al. [10]
introduce a model based approach to develop context-aware adaptive software sys-
tems. Serral et al. [11] propose steps to develop context-aware systems applying
MDD methods. Kapitsaki and Venieris [12] describe how to develop context-aware
web applications using MDD techniques in six steps.
Other related work has a focus on context-based systems and describes require-
ments and ways of developing context models for specific application without offer-
ing a general view on the method part (e.g. [13, 14]). This works primarily focus on
the conceptualisation of context, i.e. what elements typically are part of context, how
to identify and represent them in models. Also the field of requirement engineering
(RE) has made valuable contributions. Lapouchnian and Mylopoulos [16] propose a
process to explore contextual variability and analyze effects on goal models. Ali et al.
[15] introduce a goal-based RE modelling and reasoning framework for systems oper-
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ating in various contexts. Both proposals are helpful for identifying and formalising
the contextual factors.
On previous work addresses context modeling in capability management and pro-
poses a component-oriented method for this purpose [18]. Furthermore, there is work
on identifying context elements for applications in e-learning [17]. None of the pro-
posed methods or approaches has a specific focus on knowledge management or
KMS.
3 Research Approach
From a research methodology perspective, we performed an ex-post context analy-
sis and context modelling in cases of organisational knowledge management which
were completed 2010 to 2016. All analysis and modelling followed the same method-
ology (see section 5.1) and was done by the same researchers. The results of context
modelling in the cases was analysed for recurring elements or partial models (see
section 5.2). Furthermore, the context modelling showed the usefulness of explicitly
capturing and modelling context.
Since our objective is to investigate recurring context elements in knowledge man-
agement our focus has to be on cases with data sources containing very detailed activ-
ity reports and rich case descriptions. As this type of report is quite sparse in scientific
literature on context modelling methods (see section 2.3) we decided to base our
analysis only on knowledge management projects performed in our own research
groups. For these projects, the original project documentation and the personnel in-
volved in the project are available. The projects analysed originated from two re-
search contexts, (i) Rostock University (Germany), research group business infor-
mation systems, and (ii) School of Engineering at Jönköping University (Sweden),
research group information engineering who in some projects jointly worked on the
tasks. Analysis of the projects included study of the documentation, discussions with
the researchers involved and analysis of models or specifications, if available. Table 1
shows the list of projects analysed. These projects were chosen because of the availa-
bility of documentation and accessibility of the researchers involved.
Table 1: Knowledge management projects analysed in this paper
Type of Organisa- Main Purpose Core featuret(s) of Performed at
tion KM approach
Automotive supplier Knowledge sharing Active Knowledge Jönköping
with separate loca- in distributed produc- Modeling University
tions tion networks
Higher education Individual Knowledge services Rostock Uni-
organization knowledge manage- for search, collabora- versity
ment and learning in tion and learning;
higher education knowledge portals
Medium-sized mu- Process knowledge Knowledge Maps Rostock Uni-
nicipality and knowledge of versity
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domain experts
Medium-sized enter- Management of Community of Prac- Rostock Uni-
prise, IT industry organisational tice, Wiki versity
knowledge
German Federal Knowledge of do- Knowledge maps Rostock Uni-
Ministry main experts versity
Public authority, Process knowledge Best practice identifi- Rostock Uni-
federal state and customer ser- cation, service direc- versity
vices tory and description
Medium-sized enter- Management of Best practice identifi- Jönköping
prise, service provid- organisational cation, product University
er knowledge knowledge
4 Cases of Knowledge Management in Organizations
For brevity reasons, this section introduces only two of the organisational knowledge
management cases listed in table 1 in more detail. The cases form the basis for the
context modelling and context model analysis performed in section 5. When selecting
these cases for presentation, the objective was to achieve a certain heterogeneity re-
garding the type of organization (distributed organization vs. centralized location), the
application domain (industry vs. public sector) and the purpose of knowledge man-
agement project (knowledge sharing vs. knowledge mapping).
4.1 Automotive supplier with several locations
The first knowledge management case is taken from automotive industries and fo-
cuses on distributed product development in a networked organization with different
suppliers. The main partner is the business area “seat comfort components” of a first
tier automotive supplier with the main product development sites in Scandinavia. The
seat comfort products mainly include seat heater, seat ventilation, climate control,
lumber support and head restraint.
In this application case, analysis of requirements for knowledge management and
collaborative engineering support, knowledge modelling and development of a
knowledge management infrastructure and application of this infrastructure in every-
day work was performed. The focus was on the advanced engineering unit, where
product development tasks are concentrating on pre-development of new concepts
and new materials. Development of products included elicitation of system require-
ments based on customer requirements, development of functional, design of logical
and technical architecture, co-design of material, electrical and mechanical compo-
nents, integration testing and production planning including production logistics, floor
planning and product line planning.
The process was geographically distributed involving engineers and specialists at
several locations of the automotive supplier and sub-supplier for specific tasks. A
large percentage of seat comfort components can be considered as product families,
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i.e. various versions of the components exist and have to be maintained and further
developed for different product models and different customers. In this context, flexi-
ble product development in networks with changing partners on customer and sub-
supplier side were of importance.
Modelling product development knowledge in the industrial case was performed
according to the active knowledge modelling [20]. The work included two cycles. The
first cycle focused on capturing organizational knowledge and best practices for net-
worked manufacturing enterprises with task patterns. The second cycle focused on
integration of product knowledge. Figure 1 shows an example for a knowledge model
developed in the project. Following the active knowledge modelling philosophy, the
developed knowledge models were also made executable in the KM infrastructure
(see, e.g. [21]).
Figure 1: Active knowledge model from automotive supplier case
Figure 1 visualizes best practice knowledge for the task “establish material specifi-
cation”. The process flow with the steps “1. Prepare draft”, “2. Material Testing”, “3.
Process Trial” and “4. Release Material Specification” is shown; for “2. Material
Testing” even the refinement is included in the middle area of the figure. Above the
process flow, objectives and documents which are input are included. The arrows
indicate relationships between processes, roles, systems and documents or objectives.
On the lower part, the roles involved in the process are included (grouped at the left
hand side) and the IT systems and tools are shown.
4.2 Medium-sized municipality
The second case is a municipality administration from Germany with approx. 600
civil servants at one central location. The major challenge experienced by the munici-
pality and motivating the knowledge management project were budget cuts and reduc-
tion in staff size. The municipality did not have a general knowledge management
strategy but encouraged the different departments to address challenges in this field
individually. Thus, the starting point for the case reported here was a “local” problem
in one department (i.e. no general organizational initiative). The department under
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consideration experiences that citizens demand better and faster services from public
administration and at the same time the number of civil servants in the department is
continuously reduced (no replacement in case of retirements). The department has no
established structures or processes for KM, but shared work procedures among the
civil servants. For publishing and searching these work procedure, a MS-sharepoint
infrastructure is provided.
As a central element towards introducing a knowledge management solution in the
department, it was decided to develop knowledge maps following the approach pro-
posed by Eppler [19]. Figure 1 shows the knowledge application map as an example
illustrating the results of the project.
Figure 2: Knowledge application map developed in municipality case
The aims of the knowledge management project was to make competences explicit
which are required for the work procedures, share expertise between different civil
servants for the different services offered to citizens.
The effects of the knowledge management project from an organizational perspec-
tive was that there is a much better overview to “who knows what” and that some of
the shared work procedures now need less time. From an individual perspective of the
civil servants, the knowledge maps are not completely developed as some individuals
are hesitant to disclose their competence. The civil servants of the department can be
divided into supporters of the approach (the majority) and opponents of the approach.
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5 Context Modeling and Analysis
As indicated in section 3, we performed an ex-post context modeling and analysis
of knowledge management cases. This section briefly presents the method for context
modelling applied (5.1) and the results of the modeling. The results are presented in
two parts: the first modeling phases relevant for identifying recurring context ele-
ments was done for all cases included in table 1 and is presented in 5.2. The actual
context model development was performed only for the two cases introduced in sec-
tion 4 and is presented in 5.3.
5.1 Method for Context Modeling
In order to identify the required context elements of the cases introduced in section
4, we applied the context modelling approach proposed in [17] which consists of four
steps:
(1) Scenario modelling: The purpose of the first step is to identify user groups
and how their ways of using the KM system differ from each other. The scenarios are
captured with the processes supported by the system, the information input and out-
put, possible connections to other systems and processes, and the integration of re-
sources.
(2) Variability elicitation: The second step is probably the most important one. A
context model has to include in what situations and on what inputs or events what
kind of adaptations in the context-aware system should be made. Since the results of
these adaptations can be considered as variations of the use of the system, the sys-
tem’s behavior or even the system’s configuration, it is decisive to understand the
cause and kind of the variation. In order to determine cause and kind of variation, the
variation aspects (the cause of variation) and the variation points (where the variation
occurs) are investigated.
(3) Context model development. The context model represents the variations as-
pects and variation points together with the required adaptations in a system-readable
model that can be used to configure knowledge management systems. Such a context
model consists of context elements connected to variation points/aspects, context sets
for different user groups or usage scenarios, and optional adjustment algorithms spec-
ifying adaptations.
(4) Implementation of context-aware KM: the context model is used to configure
the knowledge management system which is in use in the organization under consid-
eration. This can be illustrated using Maier’s architecture of KMS (see section 2.2).
Here, the context model would be used to extend what Maier refers to as knowledge
structure and enterprise-specific vocabulary. This knowledge structure is represented
and maintained in the integration layer, often represented as semantic net or ontology,
for semantic integration of enterprise knowledge sources. Furthermore, it forms the
basis for the knowledge services search and publication, e.g. by supporting navigation
structures and filter functions in secondary search functions. With the elements of the
context model integrated into the knowledge structure, these elements also become
available as parameters on the personalization layer.
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5.2 Scenario Modeling and Variability Elicitation
The first two steps of the context modeling method introduced in section 5.1 were
performed for all cases listed in table 1, i.e. we developed scenario models based on
the case documentations for every case, and we identified the variation aspects and
variation points. With respect to scenario modeling, some cases already included the
scenarios as part of the project work. An example is the automotive supplier case (cf.
section 4.1) where the active knowledge models can be used as scenario models with-
out making any changes, i.e. Figure 1 can be considered as an example for a scenario
model.
Table 2: Variation aspect and variation points in the knowledge management cases
Case / Type of Variation Aspects Variation Point Example
Organisation (variation occurs …)
Automotive suppli- Role, individual competence, location when the material used for a
er with separate of production, task, related external product variant is dependent
locations process, product variant, product fami- on local regulations
ly, material, supplier involvement, local
regulation, compliance policy
Higher education Study format, didactic model, individu- when the study format leads
organization al portfolio, assignment type, subject to dynamic configuration of
area, collaboration type, group mem- the meta-search
bership
Medium-sized Position, procedure, document classifi- when the information re-
municipality cation, regulation, case classification, quired for a permit depends
applicable bylaw, individual compe- on the regulation case
tence, service policy, resource use
policy
Medium-sized Product line, role, related supplier pro- when pricing depends on a
enterprise, IT in- cess, platform, infrastructure version, subscription model and time
dustry campaign type, market segment
German Federal International/national scope, position, when hierarchy and report-
Ministry procedure, document classification, ing depend on project or
service policy, resource use policy, case
regulation, case classification, applica-
ble bylaw, individual competence
Public authority, Department, client group, service type, when service priority de-
federal state procedure, document classification, pends on customer group
regulation, individual mandate, service
policy, resource use policy
Medium-sized Situation (time), location, local regula- when service execution
enterprise, service tion, customer group, role, individual depends on location
provider competence, service network member-
ship, task, process
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The most interesting aspect of the first two method steps for our research question
is the identification of variation aspects and variation point, as these two aspects lead
to the context elements. The identified variation aspects and variation points are
shown in table 2.
Variation points proved to be too case specific and not suitable for an analysis of
recurrence. In order to ease identification of recurring variation aspects, we sorted
them into variation related to the individual knowledge worker, to the organizational
context and to inter-organizational aspects (if appropriate for the case). The result of
this classification step is summarized in table 3. The table also shows how many times
each variation aspect and point occurred in the cases which is indicated by the num-
bers in brackets.
Table 3: Variation aspect and variation points in the knowledge management cases
Kind of Variation Variation Aspects
Individual variation individual competence [4], individual portfolio, group member-
ship, individual mandate
Organizational variation role [4], location [3], task, product variant, product family, mate-
rial, local regulation [2], compliance policy, study format, di-
dactic model, assignment type, subject area, collaboration type,
position [2], procedure [3], document classification [2], regula-
tion [2], case classification [2], applicable bylaw [2], service
policy [2], resource use policy [2], product line, platform, infra-
structure version, campaign type, market segment, internation-
al/national scope, service policy, department [2], client group,
service type, situation (time), customer group,
Inter-organizational vari- service network membership, related external process, related
ation supplier process, supplier involvement
Table 3 shows that a number of variation aspects exist in the majority of cases. The
organizational and inter-organizational variation aspects, which are of high interest
for organizational knowledge management, can also be sorted into product, process,
organization structure and resource-related aspects:
Product: product variant, product family, material, study format, service policy
[2], resource use policy [2], product line,
Process: task, collaboration type, procedure [3], service type, related external
process, related supplier process
Organization structure: role [4], compliance policy, position [2], regulation
[2], applicable bylaw [2], market segment, international/national scope, de-
partment [2], client group, customer group, service network membership, sup-
plier involvement
Resource: document classification [2], resource use policy [2], platform, infra-
structure version.
Some of the recurring elements are not surprising as it is known in KM that adapta-
tion of content and functionality to the knowledge workers’ organizational roles or the
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actual work processes are required. But some elements are more unexpected, for ex-
ample the importance of location or time-related adaptations.
5.3 Context Model development
For the two cases presented in section 4, the context modeling process was contin-
ued by also developing a visual context model based on the analysis results. The pur-
pose of this step was to investigate whether not only context elements recur but also
structures among these context elements recur. Such recurring structures could be an
indication that the development of context model patterns could be possible. Further-
more, the context models illustrate what kind of machine-readable models are the
result of the context modeling method.
The context models were developed with a modelling tool which takes care of a
computable representation following a defined meta-model. We used the CDT tool
[22] which stores the model in an XML-based representation. CDT also allows for
visual representation of variation points in process models.
Figure 3 shows the context model for the automotive supplier case developed
based on the analysis of the scenarios. The individual and organizational perspectives
are represented as different context sets (see right hand side of the figure). “Context
set 1” includes the context elements for organizational KM, which are product line,
product variant and production location. In the context set, the context elements are
represented with their ranges relevant for the set. “Context set 2” includes the ele-
ments relevant for the individual perspective. The context elements are made explicit
in the center of the figure. Their attributes are shown in the property box at the lower
part of the tool. Each context element is on its left-hand side linked to the variation
aspect.
Figure 3: Screenshot from Context Modelling Tool CDT showing the context mod-
el for the example case.
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How to apply a context model in a KM systems can be illustrated by using Maier’s
KMS architecture (see section 2). In Maier’s architecture, the context model would be
used to extend what Maier refers to as knowledge structure and enterprise-specific
vocabulary. This knowledge structure is represented and maintained in the integration
layer, often represented as semantic net or ontology, for semantic integration of enter-
prise knowledge sources. Furthermore, it forms the basis for the knowledge services
search and publication, e.g. by supporting navigation structures and filter functions in
secondary search functions. With the elements of the context model integrated into
the knowledge structure, these elements also become available as parameters on the
personalization layer, i.e. the individual context elements can be used to tailor the
KMS to the actual user.
The comparison of the two models showed structural patterns with recurring ele-
ments linked to the variation aspects. An example is the variation aspect regulation
which in both modeled cases is connected to local regulation and case classification.
6 Summary and Conclusions
The focus of the previous sections was to investigate whether there are recurring
elements in context models for different organizations. For this purpose we performed
an ex-post context modeling and analysis exercise on a number of KM cases from
previous work. Variations aspects and variation points were elicited for all cases and
context models were developed for two selected cases. The work confirmed that it is
important to understand the variability of organizational and individual tasks for un-
derstanding context. The context modeling method used proved – although developed
for the area of portal configuration in e-learning – applicable and useful for
knowledge management.
The research questions investigated in the paper were
What are recurring context elements of knowledge management systems relevant
across single organizations?
The analysis of the cases showed that recurring elements of context models can be
identified (see section 5.2). These recurring elements concern variation aspects,
such as process, product structures and locations.
How can recurring context elements be applied for improving context modeling
methods and implementation of context-aware knowledge management?
These findings have implications for the context modeling methods and for KMS.
Context modeling methods should be complemented with aids or best practices
that inform the modeler about typical context elements recurring in a certain field
of analysis, for example provided as a guideline. Such guidelines could help to re-
duce the time for context modeling. Recurring elements or future “context model
patterns” could indicate potential for improving both, functionality of KMS by ex-
tending and emphasizing functionality and content relevant for the recurring con-
texts (see section 5.3).
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The biggest limitation of our work is the small number of cases investigated. Fu-
ture work has to address this shortcoming by using the context modeling perspective
on more knowledge management cases in order to confirm the findings of this paper.
Furthermore, future work needs to address
Identification of recurring context elements for application areas and domains.
We expect that the sets of recurring elements will depend on application or in-
dustrial domain
Development of patterns for context models including tool support
Investigation how to adapt the functionality of KMS
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper was supported within the project KOSMOS-2
(Konstruktion und Organisation eines Studiums in Offenen Systemen) funded by the
BMBF (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany) and the European
Social Funds of the European Union.
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