=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1833/9_Fountoukidou
|storemode=property
|title=Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for Novel Technologies
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1833/9_Fountoukidou.pdf
|volume=Vol-1833
|authors=Sofia Fountoukidou,Jaap Ham,Cees Midden,Uwe Matzat
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/persuasive/FountoukidouHMM17
}}
==Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for Novel Technologies==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1833/9_Fountoukidou.pdf
Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a
Persuasive Game-Based Training for Novel Technologies
Sofia Fountoukidou, Jaap Ham, Cees Midden, and Uwe Matzat
Human-Technology Interaction, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513,
5600 MB, Eindhoven, Netherlands
{s.fountoukidou, J.R.C.Ham, C.J.H.Midden,u.matzat}@tue.nl
Abstract. A vast majority of people with motor disabilities cannot be part of
the today’s digital society, due to the difficulties they face in using conventional
interfaces (i.e., mouse and keyboard) for computer operation. The MAMEM pro-
ject aims at facilitating the social inclusion of these people by developing a tech-
nology that allows computer operation, solely by using the eyes and mind. How-
ever, training is one of the key factors affecting the users’ technology acceptance.
Game-based computer training including persuasive strategies could be an effec-
tive way to influence user beliefs and behaviors regarding a novel system. Tai-
loring these strategies to an individual level is a promising way to increase the
effectiveness of a persuasive game. In the current paper, we briefly discuss the
theoretical development of a persuasive game-based training for the MAMEM
technology, as well as how we used tailored communication strategies to further
enhance user technology acceptance. The development of such a tailored persua-
sive game will be essential for increasing acceptance and usage of assistive tech-
nology but also for the scientific insights in personalization of persuasion.
Keywords: Persuasion, Tailoring, Technology Acceptance, Assistive Technol-
ogy,
1 Introduction
Computer technologies have transformed the way we work, stay in touch with family
and friends and in general how we spend our free time. However, individuals with mo-
tor disabilities (such as people with Parkinson’s disease and tetraplegia) have several
problems adapting to the today’s digital society. The common symptom of these disor-
ders is the loss of the voluntary muscular control while preserving cognitive functions.
This leads to a variety of functional deficits, including the ability to operate computer
applications that require the use of a conventional interfaces (i.e., mouse, keyboard and
touchscreens). As a result, the affected individuals face the danger of being socially
excluded [1].
Copyright © by the paper’s authors. Copying permitted for private and academic purposes.
In: R. Orji, M. Reisinger, M. Busch, A. Dijkstra, M. Kaptein, E. Mattheiss (eds.): Proceedings
of the Personalization in Persuasive Technology Workshop, Persuasive Technology 2017, Am-
sterdam, The Netherlands, 04-04-2017, published at http://ceur-ws.org
92 Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for
Novel Technologies
Motivated by this, the European project called Multimedia Authoring and Manage-
ment using your Eyes and Mind (MAMEM) 1 aims at facilitating the social integration
of these people, by increasing their opportunities for employment, social inclusion and
independence. Thus, MAMEM delivers a novel technology that allows physically dis-
abled people to operate software applications and execute multimedia-related tasks,
through eye-movements (using an eye-tracker) and mental commands (using EEG-
recorders).
Besides potential benefits of computer Assistive Technologies (ATs) like MAMEM,
earlier literature warned about high rates of AT non-use, which leads to detrimental
effects on both an individual and collective level [2]. Similar to the general population,
beliefs and attitudes of individuals with disabilities towards a technology may prevent
its acceptance and use [3, 4]. During the initial stage of technology adoption, training
has been found as one of the key factors to influence user beliefs and attitudes about
the specific technology [5, 6]. This signals the potential of persuasive technologies,
embedded in computer and software training interventions, to create or increase favor-
able user reactions to new technologies.
Studies have shown that persuasive games can be an effective approach to change
attitudes and behaviors and has been applied to various domains, such as education,
health and sustainability. Persuasive games have been defined as games that are de-
signed with the primary purpose of changing a user’s behavior or attitude using various
behavior change theories and strategies [7]. Inspired by such empirical evidence, we
developed and implemented a game-based training intervention for the MAMEM tech-
nology, consisted of various persuasive strategies.
Though persuasive technologies can be effective in motivating the desired behavior
and attitude change, there are individual differences in the way people are motivated
[8]. One of the limitations reported in the area of persuasive game design is that, often-
times, persuasive games adopt a one-size-fits-all approach to their intervention [7]. Nu-
merous studies, both in the field of persuasive technology and in the gameplay specifi-
cally, highlighted the importance of tailoring strategies to an individual level, in order
to increase people’s motivation to change their attitudes and/or behaviors [7, 9, and 10].
The focus of the current paper is to provide a description of the tailored, persuasive
game-based training for the MAMEM technology, intended to influence users’ tech-
nology acceptance beliefs and usage behaviors. Firstly, we briefly introduce the
MAMEM technology and then, we briefly describe the persuasive strategies that con-
stitute the persuasive game-based training. Afterwards, we go on discussing how we
designed our game-based computer training to be tailored to individual users, using
both theory and data-driven approach.
1 http://www.mamem.eu/
Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for Novel
Technologies 93
2 MAMEM technology
MAMEM technology provides novel and natural ways in which people can operate
their computers, like using their eyes. As a result, a new web browser has been devel-
oped, called GazeTheWeb (GTW). GTW can be controlled solely with the eyes move-
ments, which are captured by an eye-tracking device, mounted at the bottom of the
computer screen. Training is deemed necessary, in order for the users to become famil-
iar with using their eyes to control a computer as well as with learning the functionali-
ties of the new web browser (GTW). Hence, the first step was to design the necessary
training activities (i.e., using the GTW icons and typing on the virtual keyboard), in
order for the user to learn the system. Next, the identified training activities were trans-
lated into a gameplay, consisted of a plethora of persuasive strategies and game me-
chanics.
2.1 Development of MAMEM persuasive game
To date, several persuasive games are based on designers’ intuition, despite substantial
research evidence showing the relative superiority of interventions that are based on
theories and models of behavior change motivation [7]. Taking into account such a
limitation, we carefully selected the persuasive strategies of our game-based training,
using Intervention Mapping (IM), a 6-step framework for developing and implementing
health interventions [11]. The targeted behavioral variables of our intervention are re-
late to the technology acceptance and its determinants, as specified by the Technology
Acceptance Model 3, TAM 3 [12] (for an overview see [13]). Furthermore, the derived
theoretical interventions were translated into game design specifications, by making
use of applied tools, like design patterns, defined in the software engineering domain
as a description or template of a general repeatable solution to a commonly occurring
problem (for an overview, see [14]). Since a further description of the intervention de-
velopment is out of the scope of this paper we only present the core persuasive strate-
gies that formed our game-based training method (more information can be found in
[13, 14]. Table 1 contains these persuasive strategies accompanied by a brief descrip-
tion of their translation into game mechanics.
2.2 Tailored communication of the MAMEM persuasive game
One of the characteristics of the MAMEM persuasive game is that it provides influenc-
ing strategies, tailored to individual characteristics and learning process. Tailored com-
munication is defined as any combination of information or change techniques, in-
tended to reach one specific person, based on the characteristics that are unique to that
person, related to the outcome of interest, and derided from individual assessment [15]
Three categories of tailored communication has been proposed: Personalization,
feedback and content matching [15]. These three categories and their related techniques
are often used in combination. Each of these categories has been implemented into the
94 Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for
Novel Technologies
MAMEM persuasive game. Table 2 describes each technique and how it has been tai-
lored to relevant user characteristics, as well as how they were applied within the per-
suasive game to further enhance the technology acceptance of the MAMEM trainees.
Table 1. Overview of the core persuasive strategies for the MAMEM game-based training
Persuasive game-based training interventions
Selected persuasive Application to the MAMEM game
strategies
Evaluative feedback System provides frequent user performance evaluation at the end of each
level.
Factual feedback System tracks and shows user performance in a number of quantifiable
(scoreboards) criteria (i.e., cumulative scores of time and errors).
Encouragement System provides an encouraging message following low user perfor-
mance at the end of a level
Suggestion System provides suggestion for repeating a game level when perfor-
mance is low
Self-monitoring System keeps track of user performance (i.e., time, errors) which are visi-
ble to the user throughout the gameplay
Social comparison System shows a user’s performance relative to the other users
(leaderboards)
External rewards System provides virtual trophies and praises users for their performance
and praises
Liking Game graphics matching the gameplay
Levels Game advances through different levels of increasing difficulty
Assignments Game contains short-term goals to be achieved by the users
Tailoring Personalize interventions based on user characteristics and performance
data
3 Conclusion
All in all, this paper presents a tailored training program in the form of a persuasive
game, with the overall goal to motivate MAMEM trainees to accept and use the system.
The game-based training is well grounded in theories and models as well as recent sci-
entific insights. A limitation of the intervention is that it has not been tested empirically
yet. Currently, we are performing both lab studies and field studies with real patients to
examine the effectiveness of the persuasive game-based training on user technology
acceptance and performance. Based on the results of such studies we will refine our
interventions and we will expand the tailoring of persuasive strategies to other relevant
user characteristics (i.e., computer self-efficacy and computer skills). The output of this
research project is relevant for increasing acceptance and usage of assistive technology
by the MAMEM target groups, but also for the scientific insights in personalization of
persuasion.
Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for Novel
Technologies 95
Table 2. Tailored communication for MAMEM game-based training (adapted from [15])
Tailoring Tailoring Strategy User Application to
category strategy Description characteristics MAMEM game
The game features user
Identification
name on the top right of
Personaliza- Identifica- of the recipi- Mentioning of
the screen;
tion tion ent in the user’s name
User name is mentioned
message
in the feedback provision.
Game assignments are
Frames in-
tailored to the culture of
Personaliza- Contextual- formation in Use of cultural
the MAMEM patient
tion ization meaningful ethnicity
groups (i.e., Greek and
context
Hebrew).
Individual performance
Reports of data (i.e., time and errors)
what is are visible to the user
Use of User
known about during the gameplay, as
Feedback Descriptive performance
the user also individual cumula-
data
based on tive scores are provided
his/her data at the end of each game
level.
Contrasts
User’s individual perfor-
what is
mance data is compared
known about Use of user
Compara- only to that of other user
Feedback the recipient group perfor-
tive who belong to the same
with what is mance data
patient group (i.e., Par-
known about
kinson’s disease group)
others
Make inter-
pretations or System Interpretation of
judgements Use of user the user performance data
Feedback Evaluative based on performance (i.e., “it only took you 5
what is data minutes to finish the
known about level; this is very fast”).
the user
The content matching
Direct mes-
messages the MAMEM
sages to indi-
game provides are based
Content vidual status User gender
on determinants derived
matching on key theo- and age
from TAM and two core
retical deter-
moderators of the model
minants
(gender and age)
96 Using Tailoring to Increase the Effectiveness of a Persuasive Game-Based Training for
Novel Technologies
References
1. Caltenco, H.A., Breidegard, B., Jönsson, B., & Andreasen Struijk, L.N.: Understanding
computer users with tetraplegia: Survey of assistive technology users. International Journal
of Human-Computer Interaction, 28(4), 258-268 (2012).
2. Hurst, A., & Tobias, J.: Empowering individuals with do-it-yourself assistive technology.
In: Proceedings of the 13th international ACM conference on computers and accessibility,
pp. 11-18. ACM (2011).
3. Wessels, R., Dijcks, B., Soede, M., Gelderblom, G. J., & De Witte, L.: Non-use of provided
assistive technology devices, a literature overview. Technology and disability, 15(4), 231-
238 (2003).
4. Kintsch, A., DePaula, R.: A framework for the adoption of assistive technology. SWAAAC
2002: Supporting learning through assistive technology, pp. 1-10 (2002).
5. Venkatesh, V.: Creation of favorable user perceptions: exploring the role of intrinsic moti-
vation. MIS quarterly, 239-260 (1999).
6. Verza, R., Carvalho, M.L., Battaglia, M.A., Uccelli, M.M.: An interdisciplinary approach to
evaluating the need for assistive technology reduces equipment abandonment. Multiple
Sclerosis Journal, 12(1), 88-93 (2006).
7. Orji, R., Mandryk, R.L., Vassileva, J., Gerling, K. M.: Tailoring persuasive health games to
gamer type. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems, pp. 2467-2476. ACM (2013).
8. Orji, R., Mandryk, R.L., Vassileva, J.: Gender, age, and responsiveness to Cialdini’s persua-
sion strategies. In: Persuasive Technology, pp. 147-159. Springer (2015).
9. Kaptein, M., De Ruyter, B., Markopoulos P., Aarts E.: Adaptive persuasive systems: a study
of tailored persuasive text messages to reduce snacking. ACM Transactions on Interactive
Intelligent Systems (TiiS), 2(2),10 (2012).
10. Hirsh, J.B., Kang, S.K., Bodenhausen, G.V.: Personalized persuasion tailoring persuasive
appeals to recipients personality traits. Psychological science, 23(6), 578-581 (2012).
11. Eldredge, L.K.B., Markham, C.M., Kok, G., Ruiter, R.A., Parcel, G.S.: Planning health pro-
motion programs: an intervention mapping approach. John Wiley & Sons (2016).
12. Venkatesh, V., Bala, H.: Technology acceptance model 3 and a research agenda on inter-
ventions. Decision sciences, 39(2), 273-315 (2008).
13. MAMEM Consortium: D5.1- report on persuasive design principles, user models and pro-
files, May 2016. http://www.mamem.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/D5.1_Persuasive-
DesignPrinciples_final.pdf
14. MAMEM Consortium: D5.2 – Initial Design and Implementation of the Prototype Interface
Applications, January 2017. http://mklab.iti.gr/mamem/images/e/e0/D5.2_prototype_inter-
face_applications_final.pdf
15. Hawkins, R.P., Kreuter, M., Resnicow, K., Fishbein, M., Dijkstra, A.: Understanding tailor-
ing in communicating about health. Health education research, 23(3), 454-466 (2008).