=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-1978/paper1
|storemode=property
|title=The Shades of Grey: Datenherrschaft in Data-Driven Gamification
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1978/paper1.pdf
|volume=Vol-1978
|authors=Sami Hyrynsalmi,Kai Kimppa,Jani Koskinen,Jouni Smed,Sonja Hyrynsalmi
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/mindtrek/HyrynsalmiKKSH17
}}
==The Shades of Grey: Datenherrschaft in Data-Driven Gamification==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1978/paper1.pdf
The Shades of Grey:
Datenherrschaft in Data-Driven Gamification
Sami Hyrynsalmi Kai K. Kimppa Jani Koskinen
Tampere University of Technology University of Turku University of Turku
Pori, Finland 28100 Turku, Finland 20014 Turku, Finland 20014
sami.hyrynsalmi@tut.fi kai.kimppa@utu.fi jasiko@utu.fi
Jouni Smed Sonja Hyrynsalmi
University of Turku University of Turku
Turku, Finland 20014 Turku, Finland 20014
jouni.smed@utu.fi somanyla@utu.fi
1 Introduction
Gamification and Data, with its derivates such as Data
Abstract
science and Big data, are currently among the biggest
buzz terms both in academia and industry. Yet, these
Data-driven gamification refers to the use of two concepts represent possible technological and so-
data collection and data science methods to- cial changes that might have considerable impacts on
gether with gamification practices in order to humanity in several different areas of life.
improve the selected aspects of a service or First, the concept of ‘gamification’ refers to a prac-
a product. As new innovations cause new tice of applying game design elements into non-game
ethical questions, this study surveys possible contexts [Det+11]. Such use can be, for instance,
ethical problems of data-driven gamification. adding game-like elements into educational material
Precisely, we focus on the ethical question of in order to increase the motivation of the students.
using data collected from a user to modify Second, the concept of ‘Data science’ is used to refer
behaviour of the user. Instead of a clearly methods and tools used to extract insights from raw
bright or dark side of the force, we focus on data to support, for example, managers in data-driven
the ethically grey area where intentions might decision-making or mining new knowledge [Dha13].
be ethically justified while the results are When these concepts are put together as data-
not. To discuss this dilemma, we borrow the driven gamification, the new concept refers, in our use,
concept of ‘Datenherrschaft’—mastery over to practices where gamification methods and tools are
information—and present a philosophical in- embedded with a data collection, and the data is used
quiry of five cases: Leisure, Governmental, to further improve the effects of gamification as well
Healthcare, Educational and Workplace solu- as the product or service itself. The data could be, for
tions. As a result, this study shows that there example, behavioral, physiological, psychological, en-
are clearly ethical issues, different shades of vironmental, emotional or even social data. As always
grey, related to the data-driven gamification with new inventions and innovations, this presents eth-
and future work is needed in order assess, an- ical issues that should be taken into consideration.
alyze and answer the presented problems. As recently discussed by Bui, Veit, and Webster
[BVW15], Kim and Werbach [KW16], and Hyryn-
Copyright © by the paper’s authors. Copying permitted for pri- salmi, Smed, and Kimppa [HSK17], the ethical ques-
vate and academic purposes.
tions raised by gamification techniques have been stud-
In: M. Meder, A. Rapp, T. Plumbaum, and F. Hopfgartner
(eds.): Proceedings of the Data-Driven Gamification Design
ied scarcely and the discussion is still in an imma-
Workshop, Tampere, Finland, 20-September-2017, published at ture state. Unfortunately, the ethical discussion on
http://ceur-ws.org big data and its problems is also in its first steps
(cf. [FS14]). The Big data and ethical research is ple of a gamification solution used by the dark side.
seen as area needed to be covered because Big Data In the game, a player is given increasingly more dan-
is here to stay and by ethical analysis we will help us gerous tasks, and, for completing the game, the player
to see it effects on as and gives possibilities to man- has to ultimately commit a suicide.
age it [HM17]. However, to the best of our knowledge, While there is no complete evidence of ‘Blue Whale’
no prior discussion or critical reflection on the ethical even existing and there are even discussion is the
implications of data-driven gamification has been yet ‘game’ really an example of dark gamification or just
presented. This is the direction where we focus in this a social pressure in the social media group, different
study. kinds of gamified products by the dark side have been
In this paper, we survey the ethical dimensions of reported and confirmed. For example, Versteeg [Ver13]
using customer data in gamification solutions. More documented a game by anarchists in Berlin, Germany,
precisely, we discuss the ethical questions raised by the in which a player gets points from each CCTV camera
use of data collected from a user to modify behaviour stolen or destroyed.
of the user. The study is based on a philosophical On contrast to the dark side, there is a series
method of inquiry and the aim is not to provide so- of studies describing how the natural playfulness of
lutions but rather emphasize and open discussion on human beings can be utilized in motivating people
the possible ethical problems. We borrow the concept in arduous and possible boring tasks. For example,
of Datenherrschaft—mastery over one’s information— Hamari, Koivisto, and Sarsa [HKS14] in their meta-
which has previously been applied to the healthcare analysis found some implications from existing empir-
information systems, in discussing patients’ rights on ical studies that gamification seems to be able to im-
the data collected from themselves [Kos16]. We use prove motivation of users, at least in certain contexts.
this ethical framework to guide the analysis of the se- The bright and dark sides, however, are not really
lected five case environments. that interesting. The different shades of grey, in con-
The remainder of this study is structured as follows: trast, present a more fruitful area of research. With
Section 2 presents the previous studies and cases on the grey area, we refer to solutions that are either le-
(data-driven) gamification ethics. It is followed by a gal but questionable or that have been developed with
short introduction of Datenherrschaft concept in Sec- good intentions whereas their consequences are ethi-
tion 3. The philosophical inquiry with the cases is cally questionable. That is, we refer solutions that are
presented in Section 4 and the study concludes with unexpectedly, unintentionally or accidentally dark.
few ideas for future work in Section 5. For an overly simplified example, a gamified solu-
tion for a nurse, paramedic, or firefighter could, in
2 (Data-Driven) Gamification theory, improve their job satisfaction; however, every
second spent on secondary purposes could, literally,
The term ‘gamification’ was coined to Nick Pelling1 in endanger someone’s life or property in these kinds of
2002, who used it to describe the use of game design contexts. Similarly, while casinos and gambling are le-
methodologies in non-game contexts. Since then, an gal in several countries, the use of gamification meth-
abundance of scientific gamification studies as well as ods or tools in these domains to make a user spend
industrial analyses have been put forth. For example, more money is ethically questionable.
Hyrynsalmi, Smed, and Kimppa [HSK17] identified 22 Data-driven gamification, where the methods of
different literature studies on gamification published data science and analysis are used to improve the effec-
during 2013–2016 in their tertiary study. The num- tiveness of gamification, naturally belong to this grey
ber of primary studies in gamification are nowadays area. That is, when a human is measured, the mea-
counted in hundreds. sured data is analyzed and used in a way that effec-
The gamification ethics discussion seems often to tively aims to modify behavior of the user, the ethical
be inspired by Star Wars: the implications are questions and possible problems are present.
roughly divided into the ethically justified (the bright) The use of data mined from a customer to mod-
and clearly ethically questionable (the dark) side ify his or her behaviour is not a new invention. In
(cf. [CBL15; AMI16; HSK17]). For example, the ru- 2015, an anonymous senior producer of mobile games
moured Russian ‘Blue Whale’2 game is a grand exam- revealed for a news source TouchArcade how they uti-
1 Conundra Ltd. http://www.nanodome.com/conundra.co. lize players’ profiles and information to modify their
uk/. Accessed September 21, 2017. behaviour3 . The senior producer told an example case
2 Will Stewart, Yasmin Jeffery and Mark Hodge (March 3rd,
2071) “’Blue Whale’ suicide game linked to 130 teen deaths cessed September 21, 2017.
is just tip of the iceberg in the world’s suicide capital Rus- 3 Eli Hodapp (September 16th, 2015) “We Own
sia”. https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/3002981/blue-whale- You”—Confessions of an Anonymous Free to Play Pro-
game-suicide-russia-rules-challenge-social-media/. Ac- ducer. http://toucharcade.com/2015/09/16/we-own-you-
where they lured a whale—a player spending lots of Koskinen [Kos16] argues that when data about us is
money to the game—to reveal the player’s Facebook collected, we should have mastery over that data, as it
profile. Based on the collected information and found is a part of the representation which defines us. This
affections (i.e., American Football), they designed vir- is especially important in situations where this data
tual items (i.e., based on certain football teams), that is used either in situations where we cannot choose to
were solely meant for the whale, and added them to use a different system such as healthcare information
the game. The senior producer even stated that “Ev- systems—some of which are mandated for others than
ery day we collect a ton of data. I don’t even know the ultra rich—or when the data is used to modify
the size of what we collect anymore, we have entire our behaviour, as in when we use gamified systems.
divisions to instrument and analyze the data.” If we cannot have as much control as possible over
While this is an unconfirmed report from a sin- what—and who—we are, we become distanced from
gle domain, it is still an emphasizing example of how ourselves rather than being master’s over our own des-
data science can be used in ethically questionable way. tiny [Hei27].
While the player is likely satisfied due to the inclusion The mastery of data has been also in the eye of Eu-
of items based on his or her favorite team, the case is ropean Union for many years. Recently, the council
an example of the ethically grey area: the player did set a directive about the protection of natural persons
not needed or request the virtual items, nor they did with regard to the personal data and on the free move-
affect to the game play in any way. In addition, gam- ment of such data [Eur16]. The new directive will be-
ification is not presented in this example case as the come effective in May 2018 and it aims at giving back
context is a game; however, it is rather easy to gen- natural persons’ data ownership as well make visible
eralize these kinds of actions by developers into other how their data is used by different actors in the fields
areas also. of business and politics. This will heavily affect on
When data science meets gamification, where users’ the vendors of data-driven gamification solution and
motivations and intentions are modified with the help it should be already taken into account in this indus-
of playful nature of human beings there are preva- try.
lent ethical questions needing to be discussed. The As data-driven gamified systems typically, by the
following section presents Datenherrschaft, the ethical definition, handle parts of our data, drawing conclu-
framework. It is used in Section 4 where we present a sions on our and others behaviour, and attempt to
discussion of five different example case environments modify our behaviour based on that data through gam-
of data-driven gamification with ethical questions. ification, it is especially important that we can, should
we so choose, have control—or mastery—over the use
and storing of our data; namely, Datenherrschaft over
3 Datenherrschaft the data in question.
The term ‘Datenherrschaft’ combines the words ‘data’
and ‘Herrschaft’, the latter meaning “mastery over 4 Case Environment Analyses
something”. Herrschaft means complete mastery or Next, we discuss Datenherrschaft of data-driven gami-
control over something, irrespective whether the power fication in five different environments: healthcare, gov-
is intentional or not, or whether there is any particu- ernmental, work life, school and leisure. These envi-
lar skill implied or not. The use of Herrschaft can be ronments are selected based on their special charac-
clarified with an example of Tatherrschaft in conjunc- teristics; for example, citizens and employees cannot
tion with Täterschaft, meaning mastery over a crim- choose the information systems that they have to use,
inal deed as in perpetrator-ship in German criminal and schoolkids are underage. In addition, these are
law. The potential criminal has a possibility to choose the domains where gamification solutions are often dis-
whether they act in a certain (criminal) way or not and cussed as a way to improve the participants’ motiva-
it cannot be removed from individual. Thus, Daten- tions and actions. Naturally, it might be more useful
herrschaft is not removable and, therefore, it is sim- to motivate the users with the content (or make bet-
ilar to human rights: one cannot give it away even ter content if motivation is a problem) rather than just
they wish to do so. [KK12; Kos16] Datenherrschaft gamify it; especially, but not only regarding childrens’
means “possession of and mastery over data (or infor- education.
mation)”. As Mastery over information includes both
the possession of data and control over it, this is the Healthcare
term we use. [KK12]
Technology is a direction where healthcare is looking
confessions-of-a-free-to-play-producer/. Accessed to find ways to improve people’s health behaviour—
September 21, 2017. from a healthcare perspective—and gamification is
seen as providing promising possibilities. [AO16] However, there are many employers who are will-
We could imagine a gamified healthcare system pro- ingly taking new technologies into working environ-
vided by public healthcare that drives for a change ments with the purpose of helping employees to be
of lifestyle, meaning getting rid of intoxicants, getting empowered at work. Such solutions can be linked to,
more exercise or having a generally medically reason- for example, job satisfaction, feedback or improvement
able way of living (e.g., see [Par+14; Par+16]). Gami- suggestions. In these kinds of data-driven gamified so-
fication itself is not being criticized here—it most likely lutions, special care should be taken to secure that
is a good tool for many people—but there are still risks unique characteristics that help to identify individuals
that should be noted. remain hidden.
First, health is an area of life where people can be
vulnerable, and they may be forced to accept the deci-
sion of their healthcare provider; especially as one of- Government
ten does not have the financial independence to choose
services they like. Second, if information collected
Governmental information systems (i.e., eGoverment
from gamification can be used for the purposes of
systems) are the tools that are used by government and
healthcare, there is a danger of losing control of that
citizens and, consequently, are part of how our society
information, and, thus, the Herrschaft is taken from
is working and communicating [Hei+13]. When think-
the individual. There has been a drive for gathering
ing about gamification of government systems, it must
medical information for research purposes and those
be understood that systems may be such that citizens
are commonly done in good will. However, we know
are obligated to use them. As idea in gamification is to
through examples that genetic information of whole
change people’s behaviour with information collected
countries have been turned to be a tradeable goods
trough gamification, there is a risk of losing individ-
where the Datenherrschaft by individuals is not re-
uality and the demand to to be an “average” citizen.
spected [Kap16]. Third, gamification will be driving
This should be avoided as it makes the citizens lose
towards a bio-medically desirable lifestyle. However,
their individual goals in life and become just statistics
personal experience of health is not bio-medical expe-
in a government plan; after all, we do have our own
rience, but existential; what could be called homelike-
desires, hopes and fears, which should be valuable in
being-in-the-world, as Svenaeus [Sve01] calls it. Hence,
themselves.
what people experience as good health is different from
person to person and it depends on their personal In addition, citizens most likely do not have a pos-
goals and desires in life. Thus, Datenherrschaft should sibility to know—and even less to control—who is us-
be given to patients [Kos16], as European Union’s ing their information and for what purposes. Another
new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) also example of problems of gamification is that it could
aims at doing. The Commission specifically raises the be used to “activate” unemployed citizens. It is of-
health sectors’ data ownership as one problematic area ten claimed that unemployed people should perform
to improve with this new regulation. Otherwise, we some activities to be able have their unemployment
can lose the autonomy of patient and have less justi- allowance. However, gamification does not make new
fied healthcare and thus have a conflict with the core jobs but, instead, will easily become just one more
values of healthcare [BC13]. duty for those weakest in our society; this is not help-
ing them but rather underlines the lack of power of
the unemployed. Hence, as our governmental systems
Work life are a crucial part of how our modern society works,
In the current work-life environment (financial crises, it is important to ensure that privacy and liberties of
automation of work, competition in the employment the citizens are secured by the government or we are
field), many employees do not have a possibility to risking the foundations and justification of democratic
change their employer. Thus, we are ever more tied society (see [Loc90]).
into our current employment, and if the environment Furthermore, when a governmental actor innovates
is gamified, a gamified system at the work place could data-driven gamified solutions it should take special
force us in an ever-increasing competition against one care of those who are in danger of marginalization.
another. This would turn us into a mere exploitable In Finland, there are several ongoing projects aiming
“standing reserve” for company purposes (see [Hei77]), to help marginalized young people with gamified so-
which would take considerable parts of our power over lutions. However, it is questionable whether it is eth-
our own lives away by creating new “rules” and en- ically justified to embed gamified solutions into the
danger authentic (self-owned) being in the context of activation programs when a young person is in danger
working life (see [Hau82]). of being marginalized.
School opt out, as long as we understand the changes to us the
system can make. Still, we need to be able to at least
For younger people, the risk is that they do not nec-
have our data removed from a system we have used
essarily even have the capacity to claim or the will to
or tried; this is the minimum of control requirement
demand different solutions. When thinking of gamifi-
under Datenherrschaft.
cation, pupils lacks the power to choose what is used
For instance, we could use sports applications such
for teaching. This underlines the need for safeguarding
as heart rate monitors (e.g., see Polar, Suunto or
their privacy and other related rights, as they do not
Garmin), which these days offer a plethora of addi-
have judicial or practical ways to control how gamifica-
tional applications from GPS to following our sleep
tion and information collected form them by it affects
and beyond. These applications both use our data
them.
and the data of others and gamify the exercise expe-
In Finland, in primary and secondary school an
rience (as of writing this article, I just reached 100
information system called Wilma has been imple-
percent of my daily exercise need). The “100 percent”
mented, which shows that new ways of using tech-
is likely defined, at least partly by utilizing aggregated
nology may have negative consequences. The main
user data. The user can, if they want, stop using the
idea of Wilma is to ease the communication within
system. However, they still do not have mastery over
schools and between teachers, students and their par-
the data already collected, and it can be used by the
ents. However, it has resulted in not so desired conse-
application developer later on as the application de-
quences; unconstructive comments from students, en-
veloper pleases.
forcing the stereotypical view of “good” and “bad”,
and can strengthen a character for students that is
hard to get rid of as those records are visible and per- 5 Discussion and conclusion
manent. [HRK16] This study aims to open a discussion on ethical is-
If we add the gamification in education, there is sues of utilizing data-driven gamification instead of
a danger that the division between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ providing complete solutions. To do so, we used the
students is emphasized and, as a consequence, the concept of Datenherrschaft and identified five environ-
outcome can be that the inequality between children ments that are often used as targets for gamified so-
grows as “The winner takes it all. The loser standing lutions, and we outlined some of the possible ethical
small” 4 . As the pupils do not yet possess full rights challenges that remain in these. Overall, we question
or responsibilities as adults do, it is our responsibility the ethics of data-driven gamification itself.
to secure their right and govern their rights so long as The main argument here is the observation that
they are expected to be equal members of the society. data-driven gamification—as we define it—collects
Datenherrschaft’s strength is that the Herrshaft is ap- data from the user and uses this information in or-
pointed to an individual, even if they may not have der to modify the behaviour of the user. This creates
a way of defending it [KK12]. It is similar to human ethically challenging situations where the developers
rights in that it cannot be taken away from individuals of gamified solutions might easily slip from the bright
and the duty of the society is to secure those rights. In into the dark side—even accidentally. That is, the de-
the case of young people, this means that when they signers of data-driven gamified solutions might have
are in adulthood, they can decide that they do not good intentions, while the solutions can still end up
want their personal and/or identifiable information to causing rather more harm than good.
be used; they have the right to prevent the use of it
In addition, possible ethical problems are more fun-
and even to destroy information considering them, if
damental in some of the presented five environments:
they so decide5 .
healthcare, work, governmental, school and leisure.
For example, in governmental or work life solutions,
Leisure systems the user usually has very few options to choose from,
These are a different matter altogether. Even though which means that they are forced to adapt to dictated
gamified systems during our leisure time may impact systems. Regardless of leisure, all of those environ-
who and what we are—unless there is a monopoly (or ments are good examples of the grey area. The inten-
oligopoly) of data-driven systems only—we can always tions in these domains can always be good, but the
solutions can end on the dark side. Usually, these
4 ABBA 1980, “The Winner Takes It All” from the album solutions reside somewhere within the grey area—and
Super Trouper. when the European Union’s new General Data Protec-
5 It is obvious that information can be used as a part of larger
information collections that are used, for example, to develop
tion Regulation comes into action, most applications
the systems, or is part of statistics and thus it cannot later be and actions might also suddenly be illegal. Further-
removed. more, actors in these environments may not even re-
alize that their gamified solutions are affected by the 3-319-39583-8. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-
new regulation. 39583-8_17.
As the field of data-driven gamification is emerg- [AO16] Tuomas Alahäivälä and Harri Oinas-
ing, we can expect that much more ethical problems Kukkonen. “Understanding persuasion
are lurking in the shadows. The rumours and pos- contexts in health gamification: A system-
sible existence of the suicidal ‘Blue Whale’ game has atic analysis of gamified health behavior
already shown that forecasting the results of new tech- change support systems literature”. In: In-
nologies and innovations is hard. When a technological ternational Journal of Medical Informatics
or social change appears, it is (too) often so that the 96 (2016). Health Behavior Change Sup-
weakest and the most vulnerable in our society are in- port Systems, pp. 62–70. issn: 1386-5056.
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Therefore, special care should be paid to ethics of new
data-driven gamified solutions. [BC13] Tom L. Beauchamp and James F. Chil-
Naturally, this study has its limitations. First, we dress. Principles of biomedical ethics. New
presented a philosophical inquiry on the selected en- York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
vironments, which were chosen based on their special [BVW15] An Bui, Daniel Veit, and Jane Webster.
characteristics. There might be other environments “Gamification - A Novel Phenomenon or
that are more important or fruitful for analysis; how- a New Wrapping for Existing Concepts?”
ever, the presented environments are often the targets In: Proceedings of the International Con-
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get in forthcoming years. Also, empirical analyses of Richard N. Landers. “How to Avoid the
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