=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2099/CAID_paper8
|storemode=property
|title=Natural Emotions as Evidence of Continuous Assessment of Values, Threats and Opportunities in Humans, and Implementation of These Processes in Robots and Other Machines
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2099/paper8.pdf
|volume=Vol-2099
|authors=Jean-Daniel Dessimoz
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ijcai/Dessimoz17
}}
==Natural Emotions as Evidence of Continuous Assessment of Values, Threats and Opportunities in Humans, and Implementation of These Processes in Robots and Other Machines==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2099/paper8.pdf
Natural Emotions as Evidence of Continuous Assessment of Values,
Threats and Opportunities in Humans, and Implementation of These
Processes in Robots and Other Machines ∗
Jean-Daniel Dessimoz
HES-SO, Western University of Applied Sciences and Arts
HEIG-VD, School of Business and Engineering
CH-1400 Yverdon-les-Bains, Vaud, Switzerland
Jean-Daniel.Dessimoz@heig-vd.ch
Abstract and machines have already been made accordingly, rather
easily for this realm. Then understanding the laws of logic
The design of better robots, notably capable of
has also progressed, allowing for the automation of various
smart service for humans in private and public
cognitive processes, notably with electronics, computers,
space, requires more integration of human
and networks. Now time has come to further address the
capabilities in machines. This is also true for many
laws of values. This is the context where emotions possibly
more automated processes in our current, machine-
occur, and are often effectively expressed, in the case of
based, automated world. Physical laws in natural humans. As robots move in private and public space, and
sciences and the laws of logic have now been
man-made systems interact with humans, a progress in the
satisfactorily understood for some time, and
exploration of value-related processes becomes necessary,
numerous processes can be automated, notably
especially under the principles of universal design
with machines, electronics and computers. Now
[Design.ncsu, 1997].
time has come to further address the laws of
Emotion-related processes keep caring for permanently
values. This is where emotions possibly occur, and adapting behaviour to freely chosen goals and unavoidable
often get expressed, in the case of humans. After
circumstances; not only for a better life, but primarily for
briefly referring to a cognitive framework, this
mere survival. This has already happened for ages in nature,
paper proposes a more comprehensive view of
implicitly; in theory, humans have also long paid a certain
emotions than it is usually done. Instead of event-
attention to topics relating to emotions, notably in social and
driven or episodic phenomena, the latter imply a
medical contexts (re. in philosophy, education, business and
permanent, recurring assessment of threats and economy, psychology, psychiatry, health in general,
opportunities, critical for ultimately ensuring
religion, language, art, etc.). Now, time has come to further
survival. This value assessment process must
study emotions in order to devise and design appropriate
actually set targets, and drives cognition
machine-based techniques, for support, improvement and
accordingly, which notably often calls for specific,
large-scale deployment purpose (re. research in cognitics –
dynamical, changes in modelling strategies. Many
automated cognition, including AI and computer
practical difficulties appear; in human-centered engineering – and robotics). Notice the classical AI notions
approaches, even for essentially identical core
have progressively merged into the broader field of
cognitive concepts, different words are usually
cognition, human or machine-based (e.g. [Lieto and
chosen, depending on the specific nature of cases,
Radicioni, 2016]).
human or machine-related; thus unwanted
Emotions, as etymology shows, and in coherence with
differences in connotations may undermine the
classical views, relate to transitions, quitting one behavior
message, while typically these domain-related for another, as a result of stimuli or other events. E.g.,
differences should not be taken as relevant here. In
Ekman [1999] refers to the “appraisal of current event”.
fact, emotion-related processes, when actually
Various extensions have been made, the former author
implemented in robots, can effectively replicate
being famous for his work in related facial expressions, and
human behaviours. Finally, the paper describes
interorganismic influence. The latter point has been further
some representative applications in real world and
developed in situationism (e.g. [Griffiths and Scarantino,
closes with a call for further discussions in CAID 2005]). The instantaneous property of events has been
context.
somehow extended in the notion of episodes (e.g. [Weiss
and Beal, 2005]).
1 Introduction Here a major extension addresses the permanent
The design of better robots requires more integration of processes that keep agents monitoring reality, appraising
human capabilities in machines. The laws about physical risks (threats) and favorable circumstances (opportunities),
nature have been satisfactorily understood for a long time, consequently, occasionally, triggering emotions when
significant changes in values are estimated, immediately, in approach ensured by MCS theory) and experimental
real-time. validation in automated cognition - cognitics. Therefore the
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 introduces question in title is forwarded for more complete answers,
emotions, with a first reference to implicit, associated laws both to next subsection, and later on also to Section 3, for
of values; it also develops the “hidden”, continuous, the permanent underlying processes that possibly trigger
underlying processes supporting occasional, emotional occasional, emotional bursts.
phenomena; Section 3 takes a more human-centered view
and also relates to the H-R communication problem, which, 2.2 Artificial Emotions – The first wave
which has become so important at the current stage of In robotics, emotions have become a general subject of
development of robots and machines in general: humans and research very early, several decades ago (e.g. [Ekman
robots cooperate in the real world, which necessarily 1978]). The general idea was first to give robots a more
involves emotional aspects, and implies a common culture attractive look than traditional machines, in order to
and respective value assessments. Progress remains to be improve acceptance and empathy. Then attention has moved
done in translating without betraying similar notions across to communication aspects, with the concrete goal for
the human-robot communication gap (re. Italian word machines to recognize human emotions.
“traduttore-traditore”, “Traductor-traidor”; or the limits of Regarding our own work, several elements are worth
digital, descriptive ontologies [Amoretti 2016]). Then mentioning.
Section 4 reports on brief representative applications, where In terms of look, a project was discussed where
laws of values are processed in order to ensure emotion- colleagues in art would provide some kind of “head” for our
driven, smart human and robot group behaviour in real RH-Y robot, for participation in international robot
world. An example relates to a particular robot navigation competitions [Kitano et al., 1997, van der Zant and
task, in a building, under human-centered requirements, Wisspeintner, 2007]. This collaboration could not cristallize
with additional considerations also for design phase in and the alternative has been to use an Aldebaran-SoftBank
architectural context (re e.g. [Bhatt et al., 2016] for more Nao robot as a mediator between robot prototypes and
general aspects). humans: the look is attractive and completes what could
For the convenience of some readers, two appendices already be done otherwise: vocal dialogue and other
follow, providing a brief summary of elements published “machine”-based functions (omnidirectional platform
elsewhere in more details; they provide the necessary motions, metallic arm handling, etc.)
framework to formally and effectively support emotions; Briefly said, in terms of fundamental research, while in
Appendix A revisits basics as this requirement appeared literature emotions were mostly understood as states of
relatively late, out of necessity, and has led to new mood primarily denoted by facial expressions, and the latter
contributions; Appendix B presents a short summary of the typically defined in a 2 or 3-D affect space (re. arousal,
Model for Cognitive Sciences (MCS), essentially valence, stance), we found that machines and robots had
behavioural. many more ways and communication channels than
(natural) voice and (face-related) vision, to synchronize
2 Emotions and associated laws of values their emotional state in a group (e.g. H-R), not the least
being the mere functional, implicit appearance relating to
Emotions are viewed quite differently now than even a few
operational status [Dessimoz and Gauthey, 2009 and rel. ref.
years ago. In this section, mention is first made about how
Garcia-Rojas et al. 2009, Lim and Aylett 2007, Goris et al.,
emotions and the laws of values happened to impose
2008, Petters et al., 2017].
themselves in the research field; this occurred in two phases,
In those years, priority was more on formally clearing up
successively addressed below: initially rather at appearance
level and in accordance to international trend; and more essential aspects of cognition (e.g. what is, and how to
measure knowledge? or expertise?), on revisiting basics
recently as a result of MCS theory development, in
(what is reality? what are the limits of modelling? what is
agreement with experimental validation, relating to a
time?) and, as will appear below, in next Section, a deeper
broader scope, including agent’s environment, group issues
attention for emotions had to be left for later on. From a
and consequently values and ethics.
purely cognitive perspective, emotions were then just
2.1 Emotions? Why? associated with a particular domain of reality, for which
universal core entities could similarly apply (e.g.
How did emotions and the laws of values happen to impose knowledge, expertise, or time).
themselves as research fields further to explore? Emotions The title of current subsection includes “artificial” as a
made their way into our research domain in two mains steps, qualifier of emotions. It is time to draw attention to the
first as a tribute to on-going research in international ambiguous meaning of this term in natural language, which
community, and then later on, more fundamentally, along is particularly appropriately called upon here: in one sense,
with laws of values, in order to drive cognition and and for us, artificial is an antonym for natural, meaning
effective, sustainable behaviour. “man-made”, yet fully denotes true presence of all essential
There is some continuity through the two phases; but not properties; and sometimes on the contrary, it means “fake”.
much, a radical change resulting in between, from the
progress made in cognition theory (re. rigorous and metric
2.3 Real Emotional Iceberg – Synchronously the “good” side, i.e. tending to help the agent reach her goal
coping with threats and opportunities -positive value, while threats tend to let her deviate from it -
negative value. So in case of significant changes in current,
Revisited, the concept of emotion has opened a whole perceived circumstances, the laws of values must be
world, of utmost importance. First, emotions were processed again and in case current goal gets out of reach or
underestimated, or rather, largely left out of the focus of could be surpassed by others in optimality, adaptation
attention. But now consider these analogies: emotions are should proceed, as described in next subsection.
like smoke, they imply fire; or like the small visible part of In humans, it might be argued that no cognitive analysis
an iceberg, emotions imply the existence of much more
would be required for value assessment, values being
submerged material, i.e. permanent value assessment
directly perceived, as immediate pains or pleasures.
processes (appraisal). Let use develop this latter analogy.
Nevertheless numerous examples show that such a direct
First, evident as the tip of an iceberg, emotions in humans
(i.e. natural emotions) appear as certain types of sudden connection is questionable. Obviously it is not applicable to
changes in behaviour and activity, events or episodes; the highly abstract situations, like winning lottery or hearing
etymology of the word confirms it: emotions set people into about the risk of death by smoking. Thus if this direct
motion, typically away from their on-going behavioral mode perception were sometimes true, it would at most be
(re. [Lewis and Short, 2017, Dessimoz, 2016a, Singer, restricted to low-level phenomena, like tasting salt or
2016]). burning fingers. But even in such cases, experience often
Now the more interesting part in this phenomenon is the shows a gap as well: soldiers keeping shooting undisturbed,
supporting, submerged part of the iceberg, the emotion- while having suddenly lost their own legs; or physicians
related permanent processes; the previous part, the one that practicing hypnosis, apparently decisively modulate pain by
schematically prepares and allow for triggering the possible shifting agent’s focus of attention.
occurrence of emotions. Emotional outbursts appear to
schematically require three causes: 1. Constant
synchronization with current circumstances, monitoring for
status and changes, 2. Permanent estimation of convergence
or deviation between status and goals [Dessimoz and
Gauthey, 2009, Russell, 1997] and consequently 3. setting
new current goals and consequently launching appropriate
modelling strategies, cognitive developments, and actions
(re. Fig.1). Figure 1. Emotions set goals for cognition, which steers
1. Constant synchronization with current circumstances, action [updated from Dessimoz, 2015 & 2016a].
monitoring status and changes. Cognition can extend into
the infinite reaches of the imagination in humans’ cognitive 3. Appropriately setting new current goals, consequently
universe: it is generous of unlimited virtual possibilities, triggering new cognitive efforts and launching
and, even if memories turn out to be mirages of the past and corresponding actions. Here, depending on circumstances, a
visions of future prove more or less illusory, all this does cascade of increasingly uncertain processes may develop.
not necessarily matter. On the contrary, as shown in The simpler cases may simply call for immediately
Appendix (§A.1 and §A.3), the present moment is critical, switching to another routine goal in a usual manner. More
hosting all realities. Even cognition cannot develop without elaborate cases may require some new cognitive efforts,
a real infrastructure; therefore reality constantly requires top further exploration of reality, and possibly calling for
priority of cognitive agent’s attention for further survival. collective and external help. But reality does not wait; so
When changes occur, those changes should be detected searching for more elaborate goal definitions also possibly
without delay, and this should trigger new processes as requires meanwhile getting back to basic, traditionally safe
presented in next point. situations, sustainable at least in immediate and short terms
By the way notice that time showing devices, e.g. (fight, flee, lapse into a coma, etc.); this is of topmost
watches, are precious crutches for our emotions; these importance for survival.
devices are safety tethers that connect us, synchronous, with Changes in goal setting have dynamic consequences for
reality, where everything is played in the moment, where it cognition, first in terms of requirements for modelling, and
is vital, immediately, to slalom across threats and to gather second as processes for planning and launching appropriate
opportunities [Mettraux, 2016]. actions.
2. Assessment of values, of convergence or deviation
between status and goals. In MCS theory of cognition, good 3. H-R Dialogue - Translation and cultural
(and symmetrically, bad) have been defined as true (versus mediation
false), for logic laws relating to the ability of moving
Emotions deserve attention not only in order to be somehow
towards a corresponding goal. This is the axiomatic
implemented in machines but also in order that H-R
foundation for values in MCS theory (what is good-positive
communication develops well, and, more ambitiously yet, in
value, what is bad-negative value). In this sense
order that mixed groups can be effectively established.
opportunities can be associated to factors tilting results on
1. Emotions in machines – the translation issue. Natural 2. Emotions in groups – the common culture issue. From
emotions are evident in humans and theoretical definitions a cognitive perspective, for individual agents to merge into a
for emotions have been explicitly proposed as shown in group, it is necessary to have a communication channel and
previous sections (emotion1 is a particular kind of expertise, to share a common culture. For humans, this implies for
i.e. the capability to do right and fast in a specific domain: example speaking the same language, and for machines, to
to adapt behaviour in synchronization with reality, assessing have compatible codes and protocols. In H-R context, a
values at stake, and consequently appropriately setting up common ground must be established, e.g. machines
new goals and launching corresponding actions). Such understanding some words of English and/or humans being
definitions can equally apply to humans, machines and ready to press a button.
robots. Thus, the translation in some sense is already made. For mutually understanding emotions, a lot can also be
Nevertheless, translation remains difficult in general, and done without explicit agreement, just by observation, in the
is particularly difficult here, as we get close to elements case of humans and machines, like e.g. for the case of
most specific of human nature. humans of vastly different cultures.
As formally stated for speed elsewhere (re. §A.3 time and In all cases, when available, some cultural mediation may
speed), a similar basic notion may be carried by many help.
different concepts, each bringing some additional 3. General approach for managing complexity and
connotations e.g. describing the application domain rather application in the case of emotions. Complexity is hard to
than a different nature of speed itself (a quick search may deal with, and the usual strategy is to approach it gradually.
easily yield 30 synonyms for speed, in English, such as Keywords in this type of methods include modelling, focus,
agility, velocity, fluency, rate, frequency, to name a few). hic et nunc, ad hoc, case-base reasoning. For practical
For emotions as well, in a natural language like English, management of emotions in H-R groups, some
tens of words may relate, with different connotations, to the standardization is the most promising approach, focusing on
same basic idea of emotion as defined above, i.e. as change addressed domain, and stripping away all connotations too
in behaviour resulting from synchronization with reality, specific for humans and machines like for road traffic signs
assessment of values, and consequently appropriately setting or e.g. in the case of cognitive “agent” (re. Fig. 2).
new goals and launching corresponding actions (e.g. Waiting for a standardization, an alternative way to avoid
agitation, audaciousness, courage, enthusiasm, passion, misunderstandings might rely on a dedicated translation
etc.). scheme, as is routinely made for natural languages. In the
As mentioned above, with cognitive notions we get close same way an an interface or dialogue mode may refer to
to elements most specific of human nature, and thus humans language L1, or L2, we may imagine a choice between
often appear threatened in their uniqueness when the human view and machine view (e.g. Fig. 2).
implementation of emotions in machines is considered; From human perspective, emotion is usual and
notably, most people today seem to have the gut feeling that somehow traditionnally understood in English. Now, it has
intelligence is a cognitive property exclusively human (by been defined above (along with goodness and values), in a
this definition, AI could not be but an empty set!). Here this choice of concepts directly applicable also to machines and
problem may become even more difficult to cope with, as robots.
emotions relate to values.
4. Application in the real world
Emotions and associated laws of values are not only
conceptual notions. They can be implemented in machines,
for effects in the real world. Three representative types of
applications are illustrated below, the first one more basic,
the second one reaching more abstract and complex levels,
closer to what humans can “naturally” do, and the third one
relating to a navigation task, with human constraints and
some guidelines for architectural design processes. This
Section closes with temporary conclusions and a call for
further discussions in Cognition and AI for human-centered
Design (CAID) workshop context.
1. Basic systems. The first examples shown here may
Figure 2. Examples of cognitive systems, operational in shock the layperson, yet they allow by their simplicity an
the real world. Standardization should avoid misleading easy grasp of essential notions in the context of emotions
connotations. and laws of values.
The most basic example of technological support for
emotion-related processes is perhaps the alarm clock. It
1
ensures accuracy in terms of synchronicity with the real-
Emotion shares with information and more generally other words world. The law of value consists here in a single predicate:
ending with suffix ‘‘-ation’’ a certain ambiguity about the particular if current time “lays” before wake-up target time, W, stand
aspect of action it may relate to: process, instance, or product.
still, otherwise ring! The device silently keeps monitoring between human and machines, could demonstrate their
time, then, when the moment comes, it switches goals and capabilities in many regards, e.g. communicating vocally
launches a noisy action. Notice that while alarm-clocks may with humans, synchronizing and following them without
look very mundane, nevertheless sleeping well and not contact, locating and recognizing objects visually,
missing planned activities after W point in time may be of “copycating” human motions in tasks involving kitchen
very high value for the human who owns the clock. goods, to name a few of the proven capabilities (re. Fig. 3).
Another key crutch for human emotions is the smoke Emotions have been implemented in this robot group,
detector: the device keeps tirelessly monitoring particle both in the consensual sense of §2.2, and also in the deeper
density in air, and when a significant level is detected, sense involving laws of values, as defined in §2.3.
synchronously, an alarm is launched. Here also particle For example, in the former case, a graphic display may
density may look mundane; nevertheless this translates into dynamically translate in usual facial codes (with displays
a risk of fire and therefore death for the humans served by similar to animated emoticons) the internal status of RH-Y
this device. robot; as another example, both robots feature colour
Getting back to the time-base issue, an example involving headlights that may vary in a variety of manners according
robots may be quoted in the context of Eurobot robot to internal conditions and circumstances.
competitions: round duration have always been set to 90 During robot motions, several safety measures are
seconds. In early years, (human) team members. or referees, enforced, In particular, obstacle detection and avoidance can
had to manually stop the machines with an ad hoc red be done, and additionally, a constant, low-level monitoring
button, at the specified moment. Then this operation has of torques on wheels is performed; consequently, some laws
been transferred as a task to be autonomously done by of values ensure that possible collisions are detected fast, at
robots, and an explicit rule of the game was introduced: low force levels, that motion strategies are adapted, and that
failing to spontaneously stop after 90 second, a robot would power gets selectively restricted in order to prevent
loose the game. casualties to humans.
In summary, we find already in these relatively simple2 In summary, it is clear that laws of values can be
cases all the essential elements of emotions: synchronicity established and autonomously processed to ensure emotion-
with the real world, assessment of value, and adaptation of driven, smart behaviour in real world. In fact, emotion-
current goals and launched actions. related processes, when actually implemented in robots, can
not only simulate human behaviors but can also even
effectively replicate them. In practice, this notably means
that beyond formal analysis, simulation may validate
assumptions and theories. And the capability to implement
emotion-related cognitive processes in machines opens the
possibility to create a wealth of new resources helping
humans.
3. Value-based navigation strategies and suggestions for
architectural design. The third class of examples shown
here most closely relates to CAID 2017 theme: a robot
freely moves in our lab with a joint constraint of avoidance
of physical collision in real world and avoidance of virtual
Figure 3. Original RH-Y and OP-Y robots, many times obstacles, as defined by humans in order to restrict access to
engaged in Robocup@Home competitions, shown here in a some a priori defined areas. The way the system works
domestic task. The system is modular, featuring various points at measures to recommend in architectural design
configurations, all driven in Piaget environment phase.
2. Robot group for domestic help. At world level, an As illustrated in Fig. 4, continuous monitoring and
effort to develop AI in the context of robots has led to the assessment of laws of values occasionally leads to emotions,
Robocup initiative [Kitano et al., 1997]; initially, the focus i.e. quitting current behavior (here, schematically, moving
was on playing soccer; later on, Robocup has introduced ahead) for another one (here, schematically, rotating by a
new leagues, extending scope to other applicative fields, certain, partly random, angle).
notably domestic help [van der Zant and Wisspeintner, A key difference in the two types of world involved –
2007]. Some robots participating to five editions and in that physical and virtual, is location estimation. In the former
situation sometimes also involving a Nao robot as mediator case, it is always quite noisy, reflecting the complexity of
reality, while in the second one, it is typically noise-free. In
the former case, solutions may be local, relative to close
2
Beware of an essential property of information, which is environment; in the latter case location estimation must be
inherited here : its quantity vanishes upon reception (e.g. « idem » absolute, coherent with a priori definitions (re. maps – e.g.
is sufficient to repeat a whole message). By this token, simplicity in CAD, or as in Fig.5). Thus for simulation purpose,
is by nature the quality of problems already solved. In fact, even artificial noise generation should not be neglected, for
devices as « simple » as alarm clocks have appeared rather recently meaningful prediction of mobile behaviour, thereby
in human evolution.
hopefully leading to appropriate corrective measures. In real replication of best practices should not be overlooked;
world, some calibration means should always be provided. modelling cannot be complete (at best, models can
infinitesimally represent reality, be true) yet models are
made to be good (goal-oriented, tractable); a quantitative
approach in cognition allows to track improvements and to
expertly optimize known solutions; only chance has the
potential, sometimes, of yielding disruptive novelty (i.e. of
successfully challenging the infinite complexity of reality);
permanent synchronization with real world and assessment
of humans-related values are mandatory to avoid critical
threats and to pick opportunities, thus dynamically adapting
immediate goals and related modelling and cognitive
processes.
Figure 4. RH-Y robot navigates freely, assessing
continuously threats, such as obstacles, to be perceived by 5. Conclusion
LiDAR, or as forbidden areas (e.g. downwards staircases,
Emotions relate to occasional events, but the timely
pools) virtually and a priori defined by humans (shown here
detection of possibly critical elements requires a permanent
in red, graphically superimposed on original screens for
monitoring of circumstances in real world, along with
reader’s convenience). Notice also the gray squares on low
appraisal of situation and, when appropriate, immediate and
walls – mirrors- conveniently made for calibration purpose.
drastic updates in strategic goals, and, consequently,
Many approaches have been explored for indoor location.
immediate and drastic updates in modeling, cognitive
In particular, also visible in Fig. 4, a pragmatic approach in
operations (e.g. planning) and actions in real world as well.
current state of the art, for cm range accuracy, consists in
Appraisal implies an assessment of values, and ultimately
defining some calibration planes (e.g. 1m x 0.1m flat
values can only be defined in human-centered approach.
surface); with a 2D LiDAR, this retrieves two coordinates in
After briefly referring to a cognitive framework, this
the plane (e.g. x and phi), or even the third coordinate (y)
paper has proposed a more comprehensive view of emotions
with additional mirrors (thereby discontinuity in LiDAR
than it is usually done. Instead of event-driven or episodic
signal, without discontinuity of surfaces). Thus most of
phenomena, the latter imply a permanent, recurring
common architectural items (walls, doors, furniture)
assessment of threats and opportunities, critical for
naturally provide potential calibration planes; yet in some
ultimately ensuring survival. This value assessment process
cases, it might be beneficial to provide additional ad hoc
must actually set targets, and drives cognition accordingly,
calibration structures for machine-based systems.
which notably often calls for specific, dynamical, changes in
modelling strategies. Many practical difficulties appear; in
human-centered approaches, even for essentially identical
core cognitive concepts, different words are usually chosen,
depending on the specific nature of cases, human or
machine-related; thus unwanted differences in connotations
may undermine the message, while typically these domain-
related differences should not be taken as relevant here. In
fact, emotion-related processes, when actually implemented
in robots, can effectively replicate human behaviours. This
is also true for many more automated processes in our
current, machine-based, automated world. Finally, the paper
has described some representative applications in real world
and has closed with a call for further discussions in CAID
Figure 5. Example of a 2D map created using LiDAR context.
data. The red blob represents the region where a robot is
currently located in the map (ref. agv-iit-kgp.github,io, IIT Appendix A. Revisiting Basics
Kharagpur, in [Madan and Gauthey, 2017|).
Emotions relate to the top of a conceptual pyramid that is
4. Temporary conclusion in CAID workshop context. rather large. The lower levels of this pyramid, while first
Discussions are still welcome, yet the main points already established for long – most of them, probably millions of
clear today in reference to CAID context include the years ago – gradually appeared to need some renovations.
following ones: AI is part of general (i.e. human or Thus let us introduce again these solid foundations:
machine-based) cognition; design implies concretization reality, imagination and models, time and speed, probability
processes, which typically are cognitively much less and information (for a longer presentation, re [Dessimoz,
demanding than symetric abstraction processes; similarly to 2016b]). This Section terminates with a quick summary of
humans, who are primarily made out of DNA, the mere expected potential, and known limits, of these foundations.
A.1 Reality Modelling in principle allows for an unlimited imaginary
universe, and, even crude, may often help in reaching
The first basic concept to address is reality. Unfortunately,
specific goals; but in practice it remains infinitesimal in
reality itself is quite out of reach for our discussion. Any
words and representations could only fail to describe, but a power of representation of reality, and may “loose ground”,
i.e. reflect a wrong rendering of the real world.
biased, infinitesimal part of reality.
The notion of time supports the massive (imaginary)
The only and definitely pertinent statement that can be
representations of past and future worlds but connects to
made about reality is the following one, due to the Ancient
reality at best only for a thin, instantaneous present.
Greek Parmenides: “What is, it is”.
Information allows for a quantitative estimation of
A.2 Modelling, imagination and representations uncertainties and can compensate for them; but it cannot
address reality itself, approaching the latter only via models.
The second basic concept to address is modelling. Moreover, we must keep in mind that by definition,
Modelling implies the infinite reaches of imagination, as in information is subjective and quantitatively vanishes upon
humans’ cognitive universe. delivery.
Imagination allows for modelling. The word “modelling”
is retained here to assert the imaginary nature of things,
possibly somehow related to certain elements of reality; or App. B. Model for Cognitive Sciences (MCS)
not. In this sense, modelling provides the most essential, The conceptual pyramid supporting emotions requires new
core part of a large number of other concepts, such as layers, featuring core entities in cognitive realm, above
notably representation, word, image, idea, theory, type, classical foundations presented in App.A.
example, signal, variable, qualia and “concept” itself.
A.3 Time and speed
The third basic concept to introduce, time, pragmatically
attempts an “impossible”, yet extremely important link
across reality and imagination.
Time is but a dimension in a model, which denotes
permanence, up to eternity. Its inverse, speed, characterizes
change, up to discontinuity
As seen in paragraph 2.1, the real “is,” it is right there, it
is physical; time, on the other hand, is but an idea
expressing the permanence and change of things. According
to this idea, reality is wholly in the present moment,
whereas our imagination can freely slide time’s cursor Figure 4. Cognition generates and delivers pertinent
“backwards,” towards our memories, and “forwards,” information (a). Main elements for quantitative estimation
towards visions of the future. Appropriate real-world of cognition include incoming and outgoing information
machines - timekeepers, clocks, watches - can surprisingly amounts, and processing time or speed (b).
calibrate with superhuman precision in the real that First we recall why MCS theory of cognition was
conceptual time that is ever passing. established and present its general framework; then the main
concepts are briefly presented in two successive groups, first
A.4 Information, uncertainty and probabilities with more emblematic notions, then with some selected
Probability is one of the primary dimensions to consider other ones (re. [Dessimoz, 2016b] for a more detailed
when modelling reality. Uncertainty is essentially its presentation than what follows, in this section).
inverse; information is an antidote to uncertainty and both Finally, the section closes with a short summary of
concepts are similarly estimated, in terms of quantity. expected potential and known limits of cognition in general,
Probability is a measure of likelihood, the property of and MCS in particular.
things that are expected to happen.
B.1 MCS and cognitive framework
For our purpose, probabilities, and therefore,
consequently, information must be estimated in priority Robotics had really started in the 60’s of 20th century.
from receiver’s perspective. Progressively, mechatronics had provided the main
structures, wheels, limbs, joints and motors; signalling and
A.5 Potential and limits of basic notions control. In the 90’s, for people at the edge of novelty in
Let us quickly state what are the best potential and main robotics, the time seemed to have come to implement
limits relating to the basic concepts sketched in above four cognition in machines.
subsections. Surprisingly, no proper definitions, nor measuring units
Reality is all what counts; but it remains impossible to be were available for cognition. And consider an analogy, a
fully perceived and described in cognitive world. human planning to jump over a wall: does it make sense to
predict failure or success if we don’t know the height of the
wall? We had to elaborate axiomatic definitions and provide limits, and evident consequences, in: 2nd
a metric system for cognitive realm; MCS was initiated. Interdisciplinary Conference on Natural Cognition,
Essentially, cognition has been defined in MCS context, Rationality and Rivals, University of Macau, Taipa,
as the ability to generate and deliver pertinent information. Macau, 2015.
It requires a cognitive engine, an agent (re. Fig. 4). [Dessimoz 2016a] J.-D. Dessimoz, "Cognition Squeezed
Between Nature and Values", poster presented at
B.2 Emblematic cognitive notions SGAICO Annual Meeting and Workshop - Deep
MCS theory for cognition provides formal definitions for Learning and Beyond, Swiss Group for Artificial
many cognitive concepts. Among the most relevant ones, Intelligence and Cognitive Sciences, Swiss Association
we may find knowledge, expertise, learning, experience, of Informatics, Departement Informatik, Hochschule
intelligence and complexity, all presented in this subsection. Luzern, Rotkreuz, Switzerland, 16 Nov. 2016
Knowledge, Knowledge, K, is the feature of a cognitive [Dessimoz, 2016b] J.-D. Dessimoz, "Cognition, cognitics,
system capable of delivering the relevant information in a and team action—Overview, foundations, and five theses
given cognitive domain; “to do right”. Quantitatively, K for a better world", Elsevier, Robotics and Autonomous
relates to system input and output information quantities, Systems, Volume 85, November 2016, Pages 73–82; ac-
and is measured in “lin” units. cess to editor's page:
Expertise. Expertise is the main notion in cognition, and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.robot.2016.08.008; author
has numerous informal synonyms in natural languages, presentation (5 slides, 4:35 min): Click here.
including know-how, competences and skills; it [Dessimoz and Gauthey, 2009] Jean-Daniel Dessimoz and
characterizes the mix knowledge-cognitive speed; “to do Pierre-François Gauthey, "What Role for Emotions in
right and fast”. Expertise is quantified in “lin/s” units and Cooperating Robots? – The Case of RH3-Y", Proc.
thus appears as a cognitive speed. Conf. Eurobot 2009, Internat. Conf. on Robotics
Learning, MCS defines learning as a gain in expertise, Research and Education, La Ferté-Bernard, France,
and therefore features the same measuring units, “lin/s”. Achim Gottscheber, David Obdržálek and Colin Schmidt
Experience. Experience is defined in MCS theory in two Eds., Communications in Computer and Information
different ways, one simpler (time to visit the cognitive Science, Springer Verlag Heidelberg Berlin, pp.38-46,
domain, unit: second , “s”), and the other one, more Vol.82, ISBN 978-3-642-21369-2, Cop. 2010
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