=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2114/paper12
|storemode=property
|title=Towards Integrity Machines: Design Theory for Information Systems Addressing Conflicts of Interest in the Public Sector
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2114/paper12.pdf
|volume=Vol-2114
|authors=Daniel Zavaleta Salinas
}}
==Towards Integrity Machines: Design Theory for Information Systems Addressing Conflicts of Interest in the Public Sector==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2114/paper12.pdf
Towards Integrity Machines: Design Theory for
Information Systems Addressing Conflicts of Interest
in the Public Sector
Daniel Zavaleta Salinas1, 2
1
University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
2
University of Turin, Turin, Italy
daniel.zavaleta@emle.eu
Abstract. Within the public sector, conflicts of interest challenge the objectivi-
ty of public officials, threaten the outcome of public decisions, and create op-
portunities for corruption. Governments worldwide use various types of arti-
facts to address this problem: laws and regulations, the political market, and
more recently, information system artifacts. Even though these types of artifacts
have been in place for many years in various countries, the conflict of interest
problem has intensified. The problem has recently been recognized as a world-
wide governance problem. Disclosure Systems are a mainstream instrument to
address the conflict of interest problem. Public officials are obliged by law to
disclose information regarding their assets, sources of income, outside activi-
ties, participation in firms, debts, gifts, among other interests. This information
is collected, registered, and verified by official monitoring bodies. Besides these
traditional artifacts, a new wave of Information System Artifacts is arising, trig-
gered by the advancement of IT tools. Our PhD research project regards the use,
design, and effectiveness of such Information System artifacts to address the
conflict of interest problem.
Keywords: Design theory, Information systems design, Conflicts of interest
1 Research Question
The research question we address in our research project is: How to design improved
Information System Artifacts that effectively address the conflict-of-interest-problem
in the public sector? We address the research question through the following Research
Goals (RG):
• RG1: To identify the characteristics of the conflict of interest problem, relevant in
the design of Information System Artifacts.
• RG2: To describe Information System Artifacts currently used to address the con-
flict of interest problem.
• RG3: To suggest a Design Theory for improved Information Systems capable to
effectively address the conflict of interest problem.
• RG4: To suggest an expository instantiation based on the proposed Design Theory.
2 Significant Problems in the Research Field
As suggested by Herbert Simon, artifacts are built to satisfy human goals and purpos-
es (Simon, 1996). Whenever our artifacts do not serve them, we have good reasons to
consider re-design or re-engineer such artifacts, improving their effectiveness to reach
their intended purpose. Our concern regards the use and design of Information Sys-
tems as an effective kind of artifact to address the conflict of interest problem. Ac-
cordingly, we found out both little information and not-convincing evidence regarding
traditional Information Systems’ effectiveness, plenty of literature pointing out at
their limitations, and limited literature regarding the use and design of such systems.
We also find that novel Information Systems are not overcoming such limitations.
We argue that both traditional and novel Information Systems are not sufficiently
grounded in theory, which impacts on their effectiveness to address the problem they
are supposed to alleviate. First, there is little information available regarding the way
these information systems are constructed, so the underlying theory, if any, cannot be
analyzed. Second, the operation of these Information Systems has continuously been
criticized precisely on theoretical grounds. Behavioral studies for example, have sug-
gested that conflicted agents face psychological impediments to identify and disclose
their own conflicting interests (Thagard, 2007). Third, these Information Systems
have traditionally been analyzed as policy interventions, mainly through economic or
policy analysis, but not according to their inherent nature of Information Systems. We
argue that these theoretical limitations impact these systems’ effectiveness to address
the conflict of interest problem.
One of the main goals pursued within novel Information Systems is the automatic
identification of conflicts of interest, in which the modeling and representation of
conflicts play a crucial role. A very strict representation of these conflicts would be
counterproductive, as many conflicts of interest would not be identified. On the other
hand, a very broad representation would make the identification of conflicting interest
unworkable, expensive, and inefficient. We argue that these problems can be ad-
dressed through Design Theory.
3 Current Status of the Problem Domain and Related Solutions
Disclosure Systems are considered the most important instruments to address the
conflict of interest problem (Villoria Mendieta, 2007). Nowadays laws in more than
120 countries require public officials to disclose information about their assets,
sources of income, outside activities, participation in firms, debts, gifts, among other
interests (OECD, 2015). Disclosed information is collected, registered, and, depend-
ing on the jurisdiction, verified on completeness and accuracy by a monitoring body,
which is also in charge of identifying potential conflict of interest situations (Villoria-
Mendieta, 2007).
Several criticisms have been made to these Disclosure Systems. Scholars have
pointed out that these systems are often too simplistic or easily avoided by public
officials stating: “nothing to declare” (Demmke, 2007). Verification of disclosed in-
101
formation has been considered unrealistic, especially in systems monitoring a high
number of public officials (Villoria-Mendieta, 2007). Other criticisms rely on the
basis that disclosure systems have rarely been used as evidence for prosecution and
that sanctions are rare (Villoria-Mendieta, 2007). A main limitation of the declaration
system is its focus in the disclosed information, rather than in determining the exist-
ence of potential conflicts of interest in specific detail. Conflicting interests are sought
by monitoring bodies in the abstract, while such conflicts are highly context-sensitive.
Therefore, experts have questioned the usefulness of these systems, arguing that they
involve a waste of public resources and creation of costly and ineffective bureaucracy
(Anechiarico, 1996). Despite these criticisms, disclosure laws keep expanding world-
wide.
Research on these traditional Information Systems is quite limited. Most literature
regards these disclosure systems as policy or legal interventions. These systems are
mainly subject of policy and economic analysis. Moreover, there is limited infor-
mation regarding the effectiveness of these systems. Even in such cases, the evalua-
tion of the systems is inconclusive, delivering considerable caveats and limitations
(Gokcekus 2006; Vargas, 2016). We argue that disclosure systems are indeed Infor-
mation Systems, therefore researchable through the lens of information and infor-
mation sciences. To our best knowledge, there are no studies carried out according to
such a scope.
A new wave of Information System Artifacts to address the Conflict of Interest
problem has arisen, triggered mainly by the advancement of Information Technology
tools: Monitoring bodies are commissioning the design of Information Systems to
identify conflicts of interest in public procurement settings; Governments like the
ones in France and Chile have recently decided to publish public officials’ disclosed
information in open data format; very interesting and challenging applications of se-
mantic and network analysis tools have been used to automatically identify conflicts
of interest in the setting of peer review in academic journals (Aleman-Meza, 2006;
Wu, 2017). Our research project will provide a characterization on these innovative
artifacts, including the representation and modelling of conflicts of interest.
Depending on the type of Information System, we find more or less information
regarding their use, design, and effectiveness. This depends mainly on the body un-
dertaking the development of these artifacts. When these tasks are conducted by gov-
ernments, these efforts tend to replicate what the law says. When these systems are
contracted out by the government to external companies, there is not much infor-
mation available. When these systems are carried out as part of research projects there
is valuable explanation on these systems contained in journal articles. For what we
have observed so far, we find very little theory around these novel Information Sys-
tems, which again might have an impact on their effectiveness.
4 Preliminary Ideas, Research Approach and Results
We undertake this research project having in mind the improvement of Information
Systems to effectively address the conflict of interest problem. The Design Science
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Research methodology is suitable for our research, as its purpose is to create purpose-
ful artifacts designed to address unsolved and important problems (Peffers, 2007). As
we have argued before current interventions based on laws and regulations, the politi-
cal market, and information systems have not been able to address the conflict of
interest problem. We argue that Information Systems can be useful to address the
problem, especially when special attention is put into their design.
Design Science Research requires the design of Information System Artifacts, typ-
ically taking the shape of constructs, models, frameworks, architectures, design prin-
ciples, methods and instantiations (Lee, 2015). Our research project will contribute
with Design Theory, defined as “a prescriptive set of statements on how to do some-
thing to achieve certain objective” (Vaishnavy, 2015). Defining the objective of these
artifacts will be part of our Design Theory approach since we will analyze and design
the relevant processes to address the conflict of interest problem. So far, most artifacts
have been focusing in the disclosed information and in identifying potential conflict-
ing interest in certain situations. We seek to describe a wide array of applications for
this kind of artifacts according to our Design Theory.
Implementing Information Systems for complex tasks is not an easy nor trivial en-
deavor. These systems have proven to be useful when supporting structured process-
es, but not so much within complex intellectual processes or when trying to automate
people’s higher cognitive functions (Markus, 2002). This point is clearly exemplified
on Todd and Benbasat’s research:
“IT has successfully supported only the problem-solving tasks associated with de-
cision-making. But problem finding— including the tasks of uncovering the under-
lying decision problem, gathering relevant information about it, and diagnosing
it— is “fuzzy, difficult, and not amenable to technical support.” (Markus, 2000).
This is precisely the essence of conflicts of interest! These conflicts are fuzzy,
complex, even confusing for monitoring bodies (Oficina Antifrau de Catalunya,
2017). Moreover, the gathering, diagnosis of relevant information and appropriate
solution of the situation, makes conflict of interest such a difficult field to grasp. As
explained by Whitton, identifying and resolving a conflict of interest requires to dis-
tinguish relevant facts, law and policy, which involves technical skill and a good un-
derstanding of the many issues involved in the conflicting situation (Whitton, 2005).
As demonstrated by Markus, Design Theory can be used to create Information Sys-
tems tailored to address the unique characteristics of a complex problem, supporting
even its most intellectual, knowledge intensive aspects (Markus, 2002). Design Theo-
ry is key as it relies on scientific theory behind the problem to be solved, technical
information regarding the artifact, and imagination to devise how an Information
System can be feasibly and effectively carried out (Walls, 1992). Design comes to be
not only valuable or convenient, but as determinant, since design is indeed the way to
find and implement solutions to any given problem (McKay, 2012).
Following the Design Science Research approach, we start our research project
with a descriptive approach to identify the main characteristics of the conflict of inter-
est problem in the public sector, focusing on its nature, manifestations, behavior and
effects. There is a great amount of disperse qualitative literature regarding this prob-
lem within the public sector, but also regarding conflicts of interest happening in oth-
103
er fields. Characterizing the problem will give us a good grasp of the challenges to be
addressed by the resulting artifacts object of our Design Theory.
We continue with a second descriptive phase addressing the use and design of tra-
ditional Information System artifacts to address the conflict of interest problem. This
will allow us to identify the opportunities and limitations of these artifacts, as well as
suggesting improvements for further development. Additionally, we will analyze
novel Information Systems to identify similarities and differences between both the
traditional and the novel models. Particularly, we are considering focusing on systems
based on open and linked data technologies.
After we conclude the descriptive phase, we will use the information obtained at
this stage to undertake a prescriptive analytical phase of our research project regard-
ing how to design improved artifacts to address the conflict of interest problem. For
this purpose, we will develop a Design Theory tailored to the characteristics of the
problem and the state of the art regarding current artifacts. To build up the Design
Theory we will identify the appropriate kernel theories as the basis to sustain the ef-
fectiveness and development of improved systems (Kuechler, 2012). Such kernel
theories are based on information and information system theory, public administra-
tion and governance studies. The main criteria orientating our prescriptive design has
to do with determining relevance on conflict of interest cases: what procedures, stake-
holders, and information are relevant to effectively address the conflict of interest
problem.
Lastly, we will explore the possibilities for designing improved artifacts based on
our resulting Design Theory and relevant technologies available. We seek to illustrate
the array of Information System Artifacts that could be built up according to relevant
conflict of interest procedures, relevant information technology tools, and to devise an
expository instantiation of the Design Theory.
5 Research Methodology
To achieve our Research Goal 1, we undertake a descriptive analysis to identify the
main characteristics of the Conflict of Interest Problem. First, we characterize the
problem according to agency theory as done by Susan Shapiro (Shapiro, 2005). This
characterization allows us to identify the role of relevant stakeholders in conflict of
interest settings: principals and agents. Accordingly, a conflict of interest is defined as
situations in which an individual (an agent) can exploit an official capacity for per-
sonal benefit (Mungiu-Pippidi, 2017) naturally affecting the principal (citizens). Dis-
tinguishing between agent and principals is not trivial, since the development of cur-
rent artifacts to address the problem is highly dependent on whether we focus on one
or other stakeholder as the focus of the artifact. Second, we characterize the problem
as a behavioral one, a problem that affects the public official’s decision making or
judgment process (Kinander, 2016). This characterization is relevant since it allows us
to perceive the difficulty to identify the existence of a conflict of interest situation.
Third, we consider it is important to characterize the problem as one that can occur
within the whole spectrum of the policymaking process, involving a huge amount of
104
transactions and legal operations. Finally, we will briefly describe how the current
legal and market interventions have not been able to address the conflict of interest
problem, calling for the emergence of new effective artifacts designed to address the
problem effectively.
To achieve Research Goal 2, we will undertake a descriptive analysis regarding the
traditional Disclosure Systems to address the conflict of interest problem. We seek to
analyze them as Information System Artifacts. In order to do so, we seek to analyze
them by using the updated DeLone and McLean model on Information System suc-
cess, encompassing a review on information quality, system quality, service quality
usability, user satisfaction and net benefits provided by such Information System
artifacts (DeLone, 2003). This review will allow us to identify among other infor-
mation, the system’s functions and attributes (Ein-Dor, 1993) and the system’s usabil-
ity according to the type of stakeholder that we had previously identified on the Re-
search Goal 1. This analysis will provide us a good characterization of these artifacts,
as well as the opportunities and limitations that they face. Afterwards, we will carry a
review on selected novel Information System artifacts, compared with the traditional
Information System Artifacts as a benchmark. We will be able to compare these in-
formation systems analyzing what are the additional functions and attributes, and how
they overcome the limitations found in the traditional systems. We will opt for Infor-
mation Systems based in open data and the ones based in linked data. We seek to
analyze these artifacts improved features and analyze what are the opportunities or
challenges that they require in order to bring an improvement to existing artifacts.
To achieve Research Goal 3, we will develop the structural components of an In-
formation System Design Theory as proposed by Gregor (Gregor, 2007), encompass-
ing purpose and scope, constructs, principles of form and function, artifact mutability,
testable propositions, justificatory knowledge, principles of implementation and an
expository instantiation. Accordingly, the nature of the resulting Design Theory will
be prescriptive, i.e. proposing how the artifacts of a kind should be constructed
(Gregor, 2007). We will devise a Design Theory encompassing Information Systems
to address the conflict of interest problem. One of the main concerns that we have
when developing the Design Theory, will be to take into consideration the diversity of
stakeholders. One of the advantages of describing the conflict of interest problem as
an agency problem, is the possibility to focus our attention in the role of principals,
i.e. the citizens as clients for the design of novel artifacts. Using open data for making
available public official’s disclosed information is a good suggestion that the artifacts
object of our study need to be citizen friendly and provide them with a good deal of
information regarding their agents, their interests and the possible conflicting situa-
tions in which they might be involved.
Among other relevant Design Theory components, we will pay significant atten-
tion for providing the purpose and scope of these artifacts, i.e. the set of meta-
requirements for the type of systems encompassed by the theory. This will allow us to
show the multiplicity of artifacts that can be used to address the problem, according to
the relevant procedures grounded in theory to address our problem. As opposed to the
current artifacts, we will show that multiple artifacts should be built not only to identi-
fy conflicting interest, but also to bring a solution to potential conflicting situations.
105
Also important in this stage will be the identification of the constructs we will be
using to derive our Design Theory. It is relevant to mention that we seek to move
away from the mere identification of interest, to the situations in which those interest
actually conflict with other values, processes, or decisions, i.e. the representation of
conflicts of interest. We seek to clarify by constructs the appropriate unit of conflicts
of interest that we can pursue. This will be especially relevant while considering the
opportunity presented by open and linked data tools, since they allow us to compare
the disclosed interest with relevant public transactions, actions, or decisions.
To achieve Research Goal 4, and as the final stage of our research project we seek
to suggest specific guidelines for designing an instantiation based on our newly de-
veloped Design Theory by proposing an expository instantiation of the Design Theo-
ry. We will seek to focus on relevant processes, using relevant information taking
citizens as the main users of the resulting artifacts.
6 Contributions
The main contribution of this research project will be the Design Theory itself, useful
in terms of knowledge and its application to devise improved artifacts. First, a Design
Theory applicable to conflicts of interest in the public sector will bring a very much
needed knowledge contribution to theory within the e-governance field, one that has
been described as heavily under-theorized and over-dependent on descriptive case
studies (Bannister, 2015). Making explicit the design of conflict of interest artifacts
will be valuable to promote the analysis and discussion of existing artifacts, including
laws and regulations, the political market, and more recently, information system
artifacts. Moreover, an explicit Design Theory would be useful as a theoretical
framework promoting transparency and increased information regarding the technol-
ogies employed to improve public governance.
Second, we expect that the Design Theory will be considered by institutions, re-
searchers, and practitioners to devise, design, and implement improvements and major
innovations for conflict of interest artifacts. We can foresee that relevant implementa-
tions of the Design Theory can be applied to devise a wide arrange of artifacts to pre-
vent, detect, manage, investigate, and deliver judgements on conflicts of interest cas-
es. We seek to contribute in the development of meta-requirements, representation,
and justificatory knowledge for a new generation of integrity machines that effective-
ly address conflicts of interest in the public sector.
Acknowledgements
This paper is an outcome of the PhD research performed inside of the Joint Interna-
tional Doctoral (Ph.D.) Degree in Law, Science and Technology, coordinated by the
University of Bologna, CIRSFID in cooperation with University of Turin, Universitat
Autònoma de Barcelona, Tilburg University, Mykolas Romeris University, and The
University of Luxembourg.
106
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