The Biographical Formula: Types and Dimensions of Biographical Networks Ágoston Zénó Bernád¹, Maximilian Kaiser¹ ¹Institute for Modern and Contemporary History (Austrian Academy of Sciences) Hollandstraße 11–13, 1020 Vienna Email: Agoston.Bernad@oeaw.ac.at, Maximilian.Kaiser@oeaw.ac.at Abstract Behind every printed national biography is a board of editors responsible for finding established scholars to write the biographies. The personal and institutional networks, the scientific and ideological socialization of these authors have a significant influence on the biographical constructs and narratives they have designed, and thus also determines the information contained in the biographies. Therefore, a source-critical approach to such biography texts is necessary. This will be exemplified using a biography selected from the Austrian Biographical Dictionary 1815–1950 (ÖBL). A complementary approach for the interpretation of biographical dictionaries is analysis of the networks, which can be reconstructed on the basis of the information contained in the biographies. As part of the APIS project, biographical data is generated through the annotation of biographies of the ÖBL. This data consists of frequently mentioned names of persons, places and institutions that can be subsumed under the term “biographical building blocks”. Biographical networks can be built on the basis of this data. In the second part of the paper, different dimensions of these networks as well as ways of analyzing this type of data will be shown. Keywords: digital humanities, source criticism, biographical dictionary, biographical research, historical network research 1. Introduction web application and prepared and processed for Mainly due to the changes in information and biographical-historical research (Schlögl & communication technology, the focus of recent Lejtovicz, 2017). digital biographical dictionary projects has been on Starting with an introductory discussion of objectives such as the effort to transform partially central methodological issues (Section 2) and based structured biographical reference works into on selected examples, this paper deals with two machine-readable data, enhanced database complementary approaches to interpreting networking, and the exploiting of biographical data biographical networks. The first approach using methods of the digital humanities or scrutinizes aspects of the genesis of the ÖBL, the computational linguistics (Fokkens et al., 2017; networks of its biographers and their influence on Ebneth & Reinert, 2017). These efforts, designed biographical narratives (Section 3), while the according to the principle of the Semantic Web and second is devoted to analysis of the networks of shaped by the relational turn in biography (Arthur, biographed persons themselves (Section 4). 2017), also include the project APIS, which is dedicated to network-oriented digital analysis of the 2. Biographical Network Research in a Austrian Biographical Dictionary 1815–1950 Digital Humanities Project (ÖBL)1 (Gruber & Wandl-Vogt, 2017). At present, the self-perception of the digital Founded in 1946 and published since humanities appears to be quite ambivalent. 1954, the ÖBL covers not only the territory of Sometimes they are defined as a scientific present-day Austria, but the entire Habsburg (sub)discipline or research field within the empire, thus providing an image of Central humanities and cultural sciences, sometimes as a European culture between 1815 and 1950. As yet bundle of methods, practices and concepts at the incomplete, the reference work being elaborated by interface between the humanities and computer an international collective of authors from all the science (Fitzpatrick, 2012; Thaller, 2017). successor states of the Habsburg monarchy Sometimes the challenge of positioning is avoided currently contains around 20,000 biographies. The altogether (Hockey, 2004), and sometimes dictionary has undergone several stages of (Warwick, 2016) the focus is on points of criticism digitization (Gruber & Feigl, 2009). Within the such as those of Stanley Fish (2011, 2012a, 2012b), APIS project begun in 2015, the semi-structured who questioned the legitimacy of digital humanities biographical datasets have been integrated into a arguing from the perspective of traditional humanities disciplines. In terms of scientific 1 Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815–1950, history, these uncertainties and oscillating Hrsg. von der Österreichischen Akademie der positional determinations recall the pre- Wissenschaften, Wien, Köln, Graz: Böhlau Verlag, paradigmatic period in the development of a Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der science as postulated by Thomas S. Kuhn (1970). Wissenschaften, 1954ff. (hereinafter referred to as ÖBL). 45 But regardless of how the issue is confronted, the published in the introductory part of the lexicon.3 digital humanities are in a situation – at least due to Furthermore, the archive of the ÖBL contains the institutionalization (Kirschenbaum, 2012) – in much more detailed original version of the Freud which the same rules apply to them as to all other biography written by Thums.4 This archival source actors and institutions in the scientific field: their was used in addition to the print version. We will primary tasks are the increase and dissemination of not go into a detailed description of the biography knowledge. Biographical research within the and achievements of Freud, one of the most framework of the APIS project cannot and must not influential thinkers of the 20th century, here. Rather, evade these challenges. our aim is to show how the networks as well as the In the context of this study, this relates ideological and scientific socialization of an author primarily to methodology (Howell & Prevenier, determine the narratives present in the biography. 2001). Historians generally use multiple sources for Let us first turn to the published version, research into historical processes. The same applies which focuses heavily on Freud’s lifework and to the APIS project, but simultaneously, the reveals little in regard to turning points in his life. analysis of historical networks is primarily based on Related information ends with the year 1889 the information contained in the ÖBL biographies. (Freud’s stay in Nancy) in the text, and there is no Consequently, the circumstances of production, the mention of any events that had a massive influence historical context of origin and the intentions that on Freud’s life and were connected to the determine and motivate the creation of individual assumption of power by the National Socialists: the biographies or the entire ÖBL should always be burning of his works, deemed as “non-German taken into account first. Fundamental questions of literature” in Germany (1933), the arrest and source criticism – such as aspects of the genesis of interrogation of his daughter Anna Freud by the the work or the author’s position, authority and Gestapo in Vienna (1938), his emigration to competence – cannot be ignored. It is therefore also London (1938) and the concentration camp advantageous to deal with the networks of internment and murder of four of his sisters by the biographers. Their pupil–teacher or institutional Nazis (1942–1943). relationships determine their scientific and Looking at the thematic development of political-ideological socialization, which in turn Freudian theory and oeuvre along with their manifests itself in the biographies themselves in the influence, we once again encounter a shortened and form of different narratives (Rigney, 2013), thereby partly falsified representation. While the article exerting a decisive influence on the information states that “the teachings of Freudian content of the biographical texts and thus on the psychoanalysis are the foundation of modern depth constitution of meaning and the description of the psychology and psychotherapy”, conscious past that takes place within the framework of an omissions and questionable assertions are also analysis of the networks of the biographed persons. evident within it. For example, Goethe and The ÖBL thus represents not only a Darwinism are mentioned as providers of impetus biographical history for the period between 1815 at the beginning of the biography, while Freud’s and 1950, but also reflects the history of narratives reception of Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, which of Austrian historiography after the Second World can likewise be classified as important (Gasser, War. These are to be recorded both at the level of 1997), is not mentioned at all. Books such as the entire encyclopedia – e.g. relating to Civilization and Its Discontents or Moses and transnationalism vs. national biography, the Monotheism are mentioned in the index of works, multiculturalism of the monarchy and its continuity, but the biographical narrative provides no or the interwar period narratives in the early contextualization as it does not mention Freud’s biographies of the 1950s – as well as that of the works in the field of cultural and religious history. individual biographies. The latter will be illustrated The contemporary reception is distorted. Factual in the following using the example of the biography positive statements are followed by remarks of Sigmund Freud. obviously intended to relativize the significance of Freud (e.g. the subordinate clause “his doctrine [has 3. The ÖBL Biography of Sigmund not been] acknowledged by the specialist science of Freud and the Long Arm of Eugenics foreign countries”). The final sentence, in which the merits of the biographed person should usually be The biography of Sigmund Freud was published in highlighted, ends as follows after touching on the the 4th issue of the first volume of the ÖBL in US reception: “But details [...] continue to be 1956.2 The author of the biography is identifiable as rejected, partly by psychiatric and partly by the Austrian internist, psychiatrist, neurologist and professional psychologists, as overstatements, racial hygienist Karl Johannes Thums (1904–1976) exaggerations, one-sidedness, bold and unproven based on the lists of employees and authors allegations.” On the whole, Freud’s biography in 3 ÖBL, Vol. 1, 1957, p. XIX. 2 4 [Karl Johannes Thums], Freud, Sigmund. In ÖBL, Vol. [Karl Johannes Thums], Freud, Sigmund. Archive of 1 (no. 4, 1956), pp. 357–358. the ÖBL, Biographien, Karton 1: Bruch–Fussenegger. 46 the ÖBL constructs a narrative that affects both the and the relations between them classified and – as content-related and rhetorical levels, serving to far as possible – temporalized (see Figure 1). conceal biographical-historical facts on the one Finally, the data was exported in graphML format5 hand and devalue Freud’s work on the other. and processed using the network analysis and At this point, we should turn our eyes to visualization software Gephi6 (see Figure 2). the author of the biography. Thums studied medicine in Vienna and Berlin before working at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Genealogy and Demography in Munich from 1933, where he qualified as a university lecturer in 1939. As a committed national socialist, he was a member of the NSDAP and the SA (1931) among others, and joined the Austrian Legion (Österreichische Legion), a paramilitary unit set up in the German Reich to support a German invasion in Austria (Schafranek, 2010; Holzmann, 2011), in 1933; in the mid-1930s, he left the Roman Catholic Church and acceded to the neo-paganist German Faith Movement (Deutsche Glaubensbewegung). During the Nazi era, Thums worked as a professor of Figure 2: The eugenic network, i.e. personal and hereditary and racial hygiene at the German institutional relations, of Karl Johannes Thums. University in Prague and was one of the most important protagonists of racial hygiene measures Without going into details of the structures in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well of Thums’s network, it can be said that his career as in the Reichsgau Sudetenland. Arrested by the path was marked by the fact that his political- Czech police in 1945, he was dismissed for lack of ideological and scientific socializations, both at a evidence and returned to Austria, where he personal and institutional level, overlapped several subsequently worked as medical officer of the St. times. This becomes particularly clear when Pölten district administration and medical filtering the personal–institutional network by counsellor to the Lower Austrian Provincial institutions. A typological classification of the latter Government. into a) political, military or paramilitary organizations and fraternities, b) ideologically infiltrated research and teaching institutions, c) institutions to be classified as neutral, and d) institutions with which Thums had only indirect contact reveals a predominance of institutions of type b) (see Figure 3). Figure 3: The institutional network of Karl Johannes Thums (green nodes represent Figure 1: Part of the institutional relations of Karl ideologically infiltrated research and teaching Johannes Thums in APIS institutions) Michal Šimůnek’s study (2007) on Thums’s narrative about Freud results primarily Thums’s career during the Nazi era and Ernst from this superimposition and less from the fact Klee’s Encyclopedia of People in the Third Reich that the nodes of his network ranged from (2003) make it possible to reconstruct the personal fraternities to the Supreme SA leadership (OSAF), and institutional network of the biographer Thums, or from psychiatrist and racial hygienist Ernst who collaborated on several ÖBL volumes. The corresponding entities (persons, institutions) were 5 http://graphml.graphdrawing.org, (accessed 27.2.2018). entered manually into the APIS web application 6 https://gephi.org, (accessed 27.2.2018). 47 Rüdin to Reinhard Heydrich, the chair of the – memberships – awards – honors. The following Wannsee Conference – to name but a few. text is a rough translation of a single biography Thums, as a neurologist and psychiatrist, from German into English. It describes the life and had the necessary competence, but it is not without work of artist Alexander Demetrius Goltz, who a certain absurdity that he was commissioned to lived from 1857 to 1944: write the biography of a psychoanalyst. As a racial As the son of a railway officer, he spent hygienist, he was convinced of the need to his youth in Rekawinkel and in Vienna, then biologize social ties and relations, and believed in studied painting at the University of Fine Arts in the mathematical predictability of human traits. In Munich (1873 to 1874, pupil of Otto Seitz) and contrast, Freud turned to the psyche, and to a kind Vienna (1875 to 1877, pupil of Anselm Feuerbach). of language-supported mapping of human He undertook study trips to France, England, the experience, thought and behavior. However, if we Orient and America, and in between visited Munich also take into account the original version of the (1884 to 1888), Dachau, Paris and the Bretagne. biography written by Thums, kept in the archive of From 1904 to 1907 he was head of set design at the the ÖBL, we must relativise our statements in so far Burgtheater, and from 1909 to 1910 at the Vienna as, despite the critical tonality that manifests itself State Opera. Following Feuerbach, he initially in it, the emigration to London is mentioned (p. 1) devoted himself to figural painting with historical, and the influence of his teaching on “almost all often also oriental topics, which he treated with areas of cultural life” (p. 2) is highlighted more lyrical sentiment and Venetian coloring, as well as clearly. These have apparently fallen victim to the portrait, and then went on to paint landscapes editorial cuts. Whether this was done with the and portraits in light-and-dark contrast.7 author's consent could not be determined. In any The text contains several building blocks, case, the example of Freud's biography and its each of which describes one particular step in author Karl Johannes Thums clearly shows us how Goltz’s education, career or life. In addition, it also important the source-critical approach is when defines his relations to named entities. Through his dealing with biographical texts, especially if one work at the Vienna State Opera, for instance, his wishes to conduct biographical network research on relation to the institution is stated. This can be the basis of the data contained in the lexicon annotated using the highlightertool of the APIS web entries. application as shown in Figure 4. 4. Dimensions of biographical networks The next step in the interpretation of biographical dictionaries is analysis of the networks of the biographed persons themselves, which can be reconstructed based on the information contained in the biographies. Franco Moretti’s witty statement about “Human beings employed full time in keeping institutions alive, not vice versa” (Moretti, 2000), which resulted from a study of published obituaries in the New York Times, can likewise be applied to the biographies of the ÖBL. In the APIS project, biographical data is generated through the annotation of biographies of the ÖBL. This data consists of frequently mentioned names of persons, places and institutions that can be subsumed under Figure 4: Screenshot showing the highlighter tool in the term “biographical building blocks”. On the APIS. Upon double-clicking a text passage, a pop- basis of this data, biographical networks can be up-window appears and the user can enter the data built. In this section, different dimensions of these manually (e.g. relation type, name of an entity, start networks as well as ways of analyzing this type of date and end date). data will be discussed. The annotator can choose between several 4.1 Biographical Building Blocks types of relations. For demonstration purposes, four different types of relations have been selected that The biographical articles in the ÖBL are formally are frequently used in biographies of artists to structured. Every entry begins with the name of the describe relations between persons. The networks person, their professional activities, their dates and in Figure 5 show the results and dimensions of places of birth and death, and their religious faith. different types like “was spouse of”, “was related This is followed by a listing of the person’s direct to”, “was parent of” or “was pupil of”. The last of relatives, i.e. parents, siblings and children. All of this information is available as metadata. The so- called main text of a biography is unstructured text, 7 Goltz, Alexander Demetrius. In ÖBL, vol. 2 (no. 6, but essentially follows the order education – career 1957), p. 29. 48 these four types provides the most promising the selected sample. A specific characteristic of network structure for analysis. These characteristics place names is the fact that they differ in regard to should be kept in mind when considering new their level of detail, i.e. every imaginable type of annotation projects and future network analyses. geographical entity from countries to the smallest Lastly, which type of network a person can villages, or from mountains to excavation sites, can be linked to depends on his or her biography. The be encountered in biographies. art historians Ernst Kris and Otto Kurz pointed out The main idea behind the corresponding that certain metaphorical descriptions in mappings is the wish to gain a better understanding biographies of artists have been repeated since of how migration worked in the past. So far, the antiquity (Kris & Kurz, 1995). It can thus be said study “A Network Framework of Cultural History” that certain types of artists like the academy (Schich et al., 2014) is the first approach to this professor, the bohemian artist, the Orientalist topic in the field of the digital humanities. Based on painter and so on each have specific network the metadata collected from three different characteristics. In the case of the Orientalist painter databases (Freebase.com, the General Artist Johann Victor Krämer (1861–1949), more place Lexicon and the Getty Union List of Artist Names), names can be found in his biography than in many the movements of artists were traced over a period others due to his study trips to Egypt or Palestine. of more than 2000 years. In the main text of an academy professor, on the other hand, one can expect numerous pupils to be mentioned. The biography of a bohemian artist such as Hans Makart is full of names of persons, reflecting his numerous contacts (Kaiser, 2017). Figure 6: Map showing different locations across Europe that have been the destination of a study trip by an artist. Figure 5: The different networks have the same They aim “to explain the impact of local deviations data collection as their basis but result from from the uncovered general patterns” through different relation types. quantitative methods and statistics. Critics such as the historian Malte Rehbein have argued that this is 4.2 From Migration Analyses to Spatial Art a simplification of historical realities. From History Rehbein’s point of view, more qualified data beyond places of birth and death is required to Place names are another category of entities make valid assumptions concerning the movement frequently mentioned in biographies. They are patterns (Rehbein, 2015). used, for example, to describe study trips to foreign Jonas Kuhn und André Blessing developed places and countries. Each time a place name is an approach based on machine learning and semi- annotated in APIS, a geographical reference is automatic data curation for the ÖBL corpus in 2015 automatically parsed from the matching rdf in the (Kuhn & Blessing, 2017). Their model was trained GeoNames database.8 When this data is to recognize phrases describing emigration used superimposed on a map, a point cloud as depicted within the main text of the biographies (e.g. in Figure 6 is formed. It is comparable to the “emigrierte nach”, “flüchtete nach”).9 concept of a scatter plot diagram. The size of a In addition to this aspect of migration, the circle is determined by additional information like term spatial art history is becoming increasingly how frequently a place name is mentioned within important. Scientists in this emerging field of 8 9 See GeoNames, http://www.geonames.org/, (accessed Textual Emigration Analyses, http://clarin01.ims.uni- 10.01.2018). stuttgart.de/tea/, (accessed 11.1.2018). 49 research emphasize that comprehensive art When the data annotated in this context is historical research needs “to cover many scales filtered by the relation “was student of”, the (from global to local), combine monographic and network shown in Figure 7 results. It consists of serial data, and take into account the plurality of two types of nodes: institutions and persons. The cultural and artistic transfers that occur through more connections an institution has, the more often both the creative process as well as its reception, as it is mentioned within the biographies. This is also exemplified in work on cultural transfers” (Joyeux- reflected in the depiction and size of the nodes. The Prunel & Dossin, 2013). most prestigious institution for studying the fine If these considerations are taken into arts from the time of the Habsburg monarchy up to account, APIS provides the ideal data resources for the present day is the Vienna Academy of Fine new studies in spatial art history. Simultaneously, Arts. It is thus not surprising that it is located at the exemplary case studies are developed within the center of this network (see Figure 7). framework to showcase how this data can be used By transforming the same network into a in practice. one-mode network, different research questions can be answered. Figure 8 shows the resulting network. 4.3 The Künstlerhaus Artist Association Connections between the nodes of this network The ÖBL corpus currently consists of represent students who studied at more than one approximately 20,000 biographies in total. university. In this specific case, the Vienna Obviously, the task of annotating all of these Academy of Fine Arts is strongly connected to the biographies in a historically correct fashion is Vienna Technical University (TU Wien) and its daunting at best. Before beginning an annotation predecessor, the k. k. Polytechnisches Institut Wien, project within APIS, it is therefore essential to the Kunstgewerbeschule Wien, predecessor of the precisely define a research topic. In other words, Vienna University of Applied Arts, and the the scholar needs to compile a new prosopography. academies of arts in Munich and Prague. In other In the 1970s, when the computer-assisted words, these educational pathways are very humanities were in their infancy, the historian common for artistic careers and the narratives in the Lawrence Stone pointed out the danger that ÖBL corpus. Rare examples within this data set are computers might “tempt [us] to abandon sampling represented by separated nodes at the bottom of the techniques” (Stone, 1971). visualization. There are several possibilities for sampling biographical data, like cohorts based on generations, origin or profession. Within the APIS project, one scholar is focusing on the biographies of artists. Of particular interest are artists who can be linked to the artist association Künstlerhaus as well as to other groups of professionals identifiable as art collectors. Figure 8: Graph showing the same network after transformation into a one-mode network. 5. Final Conclusion In summary, it can be therefore said that both approaches showcase different but complementary approaches and aspects for interpreting biographical networks, and they are equally fruitful Figure 7: Two-mode network showing persons for historical studies. 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