=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2309/02
|storemode=property
|title=Emercoin Blockchain Anchoring as a Way of Singing Contracts
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2309/02.pdf
|volume=Vol-2309
|authors=Oleksii Konashevych
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/jurix/Konashevych18
}}
==Emercoin Blockchain Anchoring as a Way of Singing Contracts==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2309/02.pdf
Emercoin Blockchain Anchoring as a Way
of Singing Contracts
Oleksii KONASHEVYCHa
a
Erasmus Mundus Joint International Doctoral Fellow in Law, Science and
Technology, EU
Abstract. This paper explores benefits of a new method of cryptographic signing
of legal transactions using the Name-Value Storage (NVS) technology of
Emercoin. NVS not only permanently stores data, but also allows to change
ownership by transferring data between blockchain addresses, establishing its
validity and even changing data, while keeping a history of records with
timestamps. A signatory creates an NVS record with the hash of a document and
transfers it within the circle of signatories until everyone has signed it. The method
also works for unilateral deeds, which can be transferable (for bearer instruments)
or non-transferable, including a method where the signatory keeps the record
under one’s control. The third party can also be involved in the role of a notary, an
arbitrator or an escrow, who can identify signatories, change the status of the deed
and manage the NVS record. The article analyzes a probative value of the
proposed methods for legal proceedings and compares these with the traditional
PKI, such as eIDAS in EU. The conclusion is that the Carousel method can be
considered as an alternative to existing methods, but mass adoption requires
standardization and a normative background.
Keywords. Blockchain, Emercoin, eIDAS, digital signatures, smart contracts
1. Introduction
The use of the blockchain beyond cryptocurrencies is noticed in early days of running
Bitcoin network, when the first arbitrary data (a newspaper title) was inserted in the
generic block [1] in so called “ledger”, the database in which the blockchain appears
itself. Inherent features of being public and immutable and the strict chronology of
records opened a variety of ideas of its use: permanent messages, hashing (anchoring)
or ever creating decentralized applications and smart contracts [2].
There some methods mainly based on scripts how to insert data when the user
performs a transaction and in the result the user’s data is inserted in the ledger and the
amount of coins they used are “burned” (terminated). The concept of hashing files on
blockchain was described by Gipp, Meuschke, and Gernandt (2015) and proposed as a
Decentralized Trusted Timestamping [3]. There is also a notable paper about methods
of data insertion [1].
This paper explores the benefits of Name-Value Storage[4] technology (NVS)
developed on the blockchain of Emercoin,[5] and it describes the original methods of a
uni- and multilateral signing of users’ data. These methods are presumably useful for
signing contracts and deeds, and the reason they are discussed here.
17
The method of contract signing works as follows: signatories create an NVS record
with a hash of the document and transfer it within the circle until every signatory has
signed it. The method also works for unilateral deeds, which can be transferable (for
bearer instruments) or non-transferable, including a method where the signatory keeps
the record under their own control. In these scenarios, a third party can also be involved
as a notary, an arbitrator or an escrow who can change the status of the deed and
manage the NVS record.
This paper analyzes the probative value of the proposed methods for legal
proceedings and compares them with Electronic Identification, Authentication, and
Trust Services (eIDAS)[6] in the European Union which is considered a highly
structured and developed system.
The second part describes the technology of Name-Value Storage in enough depth
to explain the proposed methods and proposes methods for signing of legal transactions.
The third part analyzes the legal aspects and probative value of electronic documents
signed in this way.
2. Name-Value Storage Technology
Let us first describe the technology we consider using herein. Name-Value Storage
(NVS) was developed by Emercoin [5] (since 2014). It provides for a service of storing
pairs of data [name -> value] on the blockchain. The initial concept was inherited from
the Namecoin [7]. However, Emercoin NVS allows not only arbitrarily cast
information on the blockchain but to manage it using the wallet or API.
"Key" is an indexed, searchable and unique field (up to 512 Bytes). "Value" is a
field where the user can store data exclusively related to the specified "Key" (up to 20
Kilobytes). Users can manage such NVS records:
- specify period of storage "Lease time", it is permanently stored in the ledger but
during this specified time it is actively managed in a special Nameindex database of the
wallet);
- transfer between blockchain addresses while the record is valid (during lease
time);
- delete the record from the list of valid records at any time;
- update the Value data in the record (but the Key remains the same, users can
track the history of all updates);
- atomic transactions, i.e. to transfer NVS record in exchange of Emercoin
cryptocurrency;
- add a prefix and a suffix to the Name field to group records (for example, to
create a ground of records of a same kind, therefore, it is easy to find them);
- NVS record is a payable, which means that any user can specify the name instead
of the blockchain address and the wallet will automatically find the address to which
this name is connected.
18
- user can send NVS record to anyone's address without the permission, when user
creates a new NVS records, they may add explicitly any address (own or someone’s
else) or leave the field address blank, so the system by default will generate a new
address which belongs to this user [4].
This feature technology enable the creation of a set of services: EmerDNS,
EmerPDO, EmerSSH, EmerSSL, ENUMER, etc [8].
3. Carousel Transaction
Let us now discuss how this technology can be applied to real world situations. The
“carousel” method for signing contracts is based on useful properties of a hash function
and NVS technology. The user creates a file of a contract that contains EMC addresses
of signatories that must sign this contract.
It is recommended that the contract contains a clause that describes the procedure
of signing after which parties consider its text to be legally binding. For example: “The
contract becomes valid when the Parties of this Agreement published its hash (SHA-
512) in NVS record in Emercoin ledger from the addresses specified below: Address of
the Party A [...], Address of the Party B [...].”
Then the first signatory calculates the hash of the file and adds it in the field
“NAME” of the NVS transaction form. Following that, the signatory adds in the field
“NEW ADDRESS” their own address, which was defined in the contract.
Then the first signatory creates an NVS record with the mentioned parameters,
including LEASE TIME during which the NVS record stays under the control of the
first signatory's EMC address.
When the transaction is published to the blockchain, it appears in the user’s wallet
among NVS records. What this means is that the user’s data is cryptographically signed
and inserted on the blockchain. From this moment they can send this record to the
EMC address of the next signatory. It is important to note here that the first signatory
should not leave the field “NEW ADDRESS” blank because the wallet will generate a
new EMC address and automatically add it. If the user wants the transaction to be
obtained on a specific address (as we mentioned earlier all signatories add their
addresses in the text of the contract), they must explicitly indicate the address in the
blockchain transaction.
It should be added here that the fact some addresses own a specific NVS record
does not mean that they were signed by this address because the creator of the
transaction can indicate any address they would like. Therefore, the second act after the
signatory has created the record (or anyone created, as we mentioned, for example, the
secretary sends the NVS record to the signatory) must sign it by transferring this record
to the recipient.
When the next or the last signatory receives the NVS record, they make an update
of this record and send it on to a specified EMC address.
19
The order is not important (unless it is important to the signatories themselves).
Moreover, if the signatories send the transaction to the wrong address or to another
person, for example to the lawyer, it is not a problem. The point of this scheme is that
the party of the contract must sign it by transferring the NVS record from their own
address.
The signatories must agree in the contract which address is the last. It is important
that when the last signatory receives the NVS records, they must take an action as
otherwise the signing is incomplete. The last address can be one of the following:
• the address of any signatory;
• an address of the third party such as a public notary, an escrow or an arbitrator,
or any authorized person, whose role in the legal relations is mutually agreed
upon by the parties, for example, to keep NVS record and change its status, to
resolve claims, to terminate the contract, etc.;
• an unspendable address.
The described method is schematically shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 1. The scheme of Carousel method of contract signing using Emercoin Name-Value Storage.
20
3.1. What is an unspendable address?
An unspendable address is an address that has no private key. If the NVS record is sent
to this address, no one can manage it during LEASE TIME. There is no key possible
because the address was not created according to the algorithm (the blockchain address
is the hash of the public key, and the result of Base58 encoding), but only as per formal
requirements. The address itself can contain some humanly-readable information, so
for this reason it is clear, that there is no private key possible. For example:
EMERCoinUnspendab1eAddressXXY2HB8a,
EMERCoinDeadDummyAddressXXXXZGgkUQ,
EMERNotarUnspendab1eAddressXTXM4L4 or
MERNotarDummyAddressXXXXXXXYSQRBh.
3.2. LEASE TIME and NAME_DELETE
The field LEASE TIME, which can be defined in days, months or years, must be no
less than the period that is required for a full circle of signing among parties. It is
preferable (but not critical) that the NVS record remain valid during the period that the
contract is ongoing. Otherwise, anyone can “pick up” this record and create a mess in
interpretation. The parties can relate the validity of NVS record to the legal validity of
the document.
LEASE TIME can be terminated at any moment using NAME_DELETE
command by the user who controls the address that retains ownership of the NVS
record. Of course, the record is not deleted from the ledger, but only released from the
control of the address, to say, becomes just an archived record on the blockchain.
3.3. VALUE
In this case, VALUE must contain any arbitrary data that will be publicly available on
the blockchain in relation to the NAME record where parties keep the hash of the legal
transaction. For example, one can keep a link where the document is stored, contacts,
instructions for the next signatory or even the file itself.
3.4. Signing Irrevocable (non)-Transferable Unilateral Legal Transactions
Irrevocable unilateral deeds, like a gift or an irrevocable trust, can be performed by
sending the NVS record from the signatory to the recipient. The signatory cannot
revoke the NVS record after it has been sent to the recipient.
The nature of NVS technology is that NVS record can be sent to anyone’s address
without the permission of the recipient. That is why if the law requires the recipient’s
acceptance of the deed, the parties must follow the same steps as described in
Subsection “What is an unspendable address?” i.e., the Carousel scheme; otherwise, if
there is no need for the recipient’s acceptance, they can perform this scheme.
21
There is also another aspect that must be considered regarding the fact that the
keeper of NVS record can transfer it to any other address. Therefore, if the deed
restricts the right of the recipient to convey their right or power to a third party, the
signatory must specify the recipient’s EMC address in the text of the deed, as described
in Subsection “What is an unspendable address?”, and add a notice in the deed that it
will be invalid if transferred to any other address except the one mentioned.
The transferable nature of NVS records can be useful. If the deed is supposed to be
transferable, the signatory should not write the address of the grantee in the text of the
deed. So, any holder of the record will have the rights and power that follow from the
deed. This is applicable to bearer instruments.
Therefore, the scheme looks as follows. The signatory creates the NVS record with
the hash of the file and sends it to the recipient. The signatory can add the address of
the recipient in the text of the deed; however, it is only a legal restriction, not a
technological one, because the recipient still can transfer the NVS record to any other
address or stop LEASE TIME. Therefore, it is recommended to define a legal
consequence of these actions in the text of the deed.
3.5. Revocable non-Transferable Unilateral Legal Transactions
Revocable non-transferable unilateral deeds, like a power of attorney, can be performed
by sending an NVS record from the signatory to their own address. Thus, the record is
kept under the signatory’s control and can be revoked by using the NAME_DELETE
command. The signatory can also complete the signing by sending the record to the
third party, who can serve the role of a notary, escrow, arbitrator, etc., see details in the
next subsection. The recipient or anyone who wants to verify the record, receives the
file with the deed, calculates the hash, and compares it with the hash published in the
field NAME of NVS record.
3.6. Public Notary Scheme
Signatories will use a third party such as notary, arbitrator, or escrow (to simplify
this let us call it just “notary”) for two basics reasons.
Firstly, if the notary is a trusted party between counterparties that do not know
each other, the notary can confirm each person’s identity remotely.
Another use of the notary is that they can change the status of the deed in cases
when the NVS record is out of the user’s control.
There are two basics methods: to manage the validity string of the deed or to
manage the NVS record of the deed.
The first scheme works as follows. The notary creates an NVS record with the
“Identifier” of the deed as a NAME of NVS record and status (for example “Valid”) as
the field “Value.” The signatory adds this Identifier in the text of the deed. Then the
22
signatory can ask the notary to change the NVS record to another status (invalid,
expired, etc.).
This is useful because when the signatory transfers the NVS record to the recipient,
they are not able to revoke the NVS record from the recipient’s ownership. Thus, they
can cancel the deed, asking the notary to change the status of the validity string.
The second is when the NVS record with the hash of the file is sent to the notary.
The notary can change the status of the deed upon the request of a party.
These are also useful because the signatory can lose the private key, and they
would, therefore, be unable to perform NAME_DELETE command.
Anyone who knows the Identifier can find it in NVS database since the NAME
field is indexed and searchable.
3.7. EmerNick Instead of EMC Address
There is another useful feature of NVS records—an alias can be used as the payment
and recipient’s address. If one creates an NVS record, it can be used as an identifier of
one’s address, which is called in Emercoin infrastructure “EmerNick.”[4] In the field
NAME, the user adds their alias. In the field VALUE, the user can add their contacts,
URLs, and other details.
Anyone can pay EMC to EmerNick or transfer an NVS record there, just by
putting EmerNick as an address. The system will find the address to which EmerNick
is attached and substitute it when the transaction is submitted. Parties can use their
EmerNicks instead of addresses in their contract.
In terms of legal interpretation, “EmerNick” can be used if the deed allows
cessation of rights without the authorization of the counterparty.
Parties must consider that EmerNick can be transferred to another address. Thus, if
the legal transaction must be connected to the concrete person with a specified address,
EmerNick cannot suit this purpose.
4. Legal Validity and eIDAS compliance
4.1. Methodology
Electronic Identification, Authentication and Trust Services (eIDAS) is a regulation on
standards for electronic identification and trust services for electronic transactions,
established in EU Regulation 910/2014 of 23 July 2014.[6] eIDAS established formal
and actual requirements for digital signatures and identification of users. Neither
Emercoin nor the proposed method herein has obtained any certificates or licenses at
the time of writing this paper.
However, Article 25 of eIDAS makes this regulation technologically neutral
since it does not exclude other technologies and methods: “An electronic signature
shall not be denied legal effect and admissibility as evidence in legal proceedings
solely on the grounds that it is in an electronic form or that it does not meet the
requirements for qualified electronic signatures.”
23
Thus, let us consider the probative value of the proposed methods. For this reason,
we found relevant the methodology which is provided by Article 6 “Compliance with a
requirement for a signature” of UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Signatures
(2001):
“(1) The signature creation data are, within the context in which they are used,
linked to the signatory and to no other person.
(2) The signature creation data were, at the time of signing, under the control of
the signatory and of no other person.
(3) Any alteration to the electronic signature, made after the time of signing, is
detectable.
(4) Where a purpose of the legal requirement for a signature is to provide
assurance as to the integrity of the information to which it relates, any alteration made
to that information after the time of signing is detectable.” [9]
4.2. Analysis
As for the first requirement, there is a solid relationship between the signatories and the
file of the contract provided by cryptographic primitives and the blockchain.
The blockchain addresses of all signatories are explicitly mentioned in the contract.
The hash sum is calculated from the file of the contract and placed in the field NAME
of NVS transaction. Then, the NVS record with the hash sum is sent to the next
signatory as per the address mentioned in the contract. This transfer is performed by
signing the blockchain transaction with the private key. Therefore, when the next user
receives the NVS record from the address mentioned in the contract, they can be
assured that it was cryptographically signed by their counterparty (whose EMC address
is mentioned in the contract).
If the NVS record is sent to another address not mentioned in the contract or sent
from the address out of the contract, then the mismatch is visible.
The sole control of the address is provided by the private key. The blockchain
address is generated from this private key through a series of transformations using
hash functions and Base58 encoding.[10] The private key is the only way to make an
NVS transaction from the address to which it is related.
Emercoin blockchain is based on Bitcoin code, and it is open source;[11] therefore,
the mechanism of blockchain addresses and private keys is verifiable.
The alteration of an electronic signature is impossible on the blockchain without its
detection. It is guaranteed by ECDSA algorithms used for signing blockchain
transactions.
To ensure verifiability, the wallet must work as a full node, i.e., to keep the
complete history of transactions. The default Emercoin wallet works as a full node.
The integrity of the file is ensured by casting the hash sum (checksum) of it on the
blockchain in the NVS record. Since the hash is a one-way function, any alteration of
the file that contains the text of the contract is detectable because it will not match the
original hash stored on the blockchain.
There is another way to ensure the integrity of the file. To publish the file in the
field VALUE. However, it can only store 20 KB, and it is public by design. Therefore,
hashing has another benefit, the file remains disclosed to the general public.
In addition, it is better to use hashing with a length of 512 bits for two reasons: 1) it
provides better encryption and 2) the field NAME is limited to 512 bytes length). It is
not recommended to use old hash algorithms, for example, SHA-1, since at least one
24
collision is already known (the collision means that one hash sum equals to more than
one input).
As we see from the above analysis, this method offers a high probative level for the
transaction and relation with the signatories. However, this level can be achieved using
just asymmetric cryptography with a number of existing tools. What therefore
distinguishes this method?
4.3. Timestamp
One of the most distinguishing features of the blockchain is timestamping. Each
transaction has its own proof of existence at the exact time. Average tolerance accuracy
is around 10 minutes per block.
Asymmetric cryptography and existing methods of signing legal transactions
cannot guarantee a correct timestamp because the signatory performs it on the local
machine and can change time and date settings. This can only be achieved with the help
of Public Key Infrastructure and third parties.
A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a set of technologies and procedures that
enables deployment of public-key cryptography-based security services.[14] In PKI,
one of the providers is responsible for the provision of time and date information. At
the moment when the transaction is performed, this third party “Time Stamping
Authority” (TSA)1 logically adds timing data to the transaction through the internet
connection.
The blockchain in this sense is a kind of third party, but a collective one and has a
distributed non-centralized nature; thus, it significantly reduces the risk of corruption
and centralization.
4.4. Identification
Public key cryptography requires public key infrastructure for a simple reason—to
guarantee that a particular public key belongs to a claimed entity/person. This is done
by a certification authority (CA), which issues a certificate (mainly x.509 standard is
used) that ensures this is binding. Such a certificate can be verified by anyone knowing
the CA’s public key, because the certificate is digitally signed.[12]
The blockchain network can serve as a kind of Public Key Infrastructure, where the
blockchain address is a public key. However, without certificates issued by a CA, the
blockchain itself ensures anonymous identity (or better to say “pseudonym”), because
only the person that has the private key to the particular address can sign the
transaction.
Signing the blockchain transaction is actually the same as signing data when we
are talking about PKI, but the difference is that the signatory signs the blockchain
transaction that also contains the user’s data, while the classical scheme of digital
signing includes only the user’s data.
1
Trusted timestamping processes are specified in RFC 361 (Adams et al., 2001)
and the ANSI ASC X9.95 standard (American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
2005), which augmented RFC 361 with data-level security requirements. Both
specifications describe processes that require a central time stamping authority (TSA)
to issue timestamps and ensure their validity.
25
There are two practical reasons for an identification: to allocate the holder of rights
and to impose obligations.
For rights, the holder is interested in proving their identity. Even at the moment of
signing, the acquirer of a right is anonymous, but they can prove their identity at any
moment using the private key, to say, the person who holds the key is the right holder.
The obligation has a different interested party. Here the creditor is concerned about
the identification of the debtor. The proposed method in its pure implementation cannot
provide for a high level of identification.
Parties need a preliminary agreement and an arrangement to share with each other
their addresses. Doing so ensures that legal transactions signed from such addresses
lead to the exact person and this person agrees that this is legally binding.
The qualified electronic signature complaint with eIDAS compared to this scheme has
an advantage because it does not require the signatories have prior relationships; they
can even not know each other. However, the signatory must have a relationship with a
trusted service provider (TSP), which is the third party that identifies the user and
ensures non-repudiation of the signature. Let us consider this case.
4.5. eIDAS Compliance
The qualified electronic signature complaint with eIDAS (QES) can provide for the
equivalent legal effect of a handwritten signature (Article 25 of eIDAS Regulation),
which ensures non-repudiation.
The European Union Agency for Network Information Security (ENISA) issued a
guidance brochure where they explained non-repudiation of a signature as a signature
for which the signatory cannot deny that they are the originator of such a signature. For
that reason it is archived with a set of technologies and standards described as follows:
“Such electronic signatures thanks to the obligations set by the eIDAS Regulation on
both the TSP managing them (in particular the CAs) and on the underlying
technologies: warrant data integrity, identify the signatory with a high level of certainty,
and ensure the non-repudiation of signing.”[13]
To add to this, QES also requires a special secure hardware device. The device
stores the private key and signs transactions. The device must be certified. For this
reason, the proposed method herein cannot be considered as an equivalent to QES
without a sufficient upgrade to the concept.
There is another type that is called “advanced electronic signature” (AES), which
does not require hardware devices.
Since both QES and AES require compliance with standards and formal
certification of a TSP, the proposed method cannot be considered comparable in this
field.
In fact, the proposed method, if applied with the “notary” scheme (as we called it
here) for identification of parties, would be similar to AES. But if a hardware device
was also added, it could be considered as QES as well.
The benefit of the use of blockchain technology when compared to the classical
PKI is that it eliminates the necessity of TSA since timestamp is an inherent feature of
all blockchain transactions.
26
5. Conclusion
The Carousel method and its multiple variations must consist of two steps: the user
inserts a hash of the file as NAME in the NVS transaction and then they use this record.
The NVS technology allows a user to transfer a record to another user, which is the
same as if we passed the document to the next signatory. However, the most interesting
aspect of this method is that the signatories include their blockchain addresses (which
are analogs to public keys) in the text of the electronic document. Then the hash of this
document is inserted in the blockchain transaction, which is then signed from the
mentioned addresses.
The method is suitable for unilateral legal transactions when the record is stored on
the signatory’s address. The signatory can also issue bearer instruments. They sign the
record and send it to the recipient, and the recipient is free to grant it to anyone else.
The immutability of the blockchain is an advantage and a restriction at the same time.
If the user sends the transaction to someone, they cannot retrieve it back. The user can
keep the record on their own address, but they still lose access to the record if the key is
lost. Therefore, we designed the Carousel method with the concept of a “notary.” A
third party issues a record where they certify the validity of the deed. Then the
signatory includes the link to this record in their own record. Then the signatory can
ask the notary to change the status.
The proposed method has advantages over traditional PKIs:
• timestamping is decentralized, while it is performed by TSA in PKI;
• hashes are irrevocably and permanently public because the blockchain plays
the role of a global repository, while in the traditional scheme the signature is
local.
We see that the digital signing is similar in principle. The traditional cryptographic
signing scheme has an INPUT (something to be signed) and an OUTPUT (a string of
characters which are obtained in the result of a cryptographic operation). The
blockchain signing is almost the same, but the only difference is the user includes in as
INPUT the arbitrary data (for example, hash of the contract) and data of the blockchain
transaction and scripts. However, the insertable volume in blockchain is restricted to
dozens of kilobytes. That is why the user may be interested in signing not the file
(photo, document, etc.) but a hash (checksum), which gives the same effect in terms of
validation of data integrity.
The traditional PKI method has advantages when it is regulated and performed by
trusted service providers (TSP). TSP is the third party that identifies the person when
they issue an asymmetric key. The x509 standard certificate issued by TSP is
connected with the public key and indicates a specific person; with a special hardware
device that securely stores the digital signature, it ensures non-repudiation. The person
who signed the legal transaction cannot deny this fact. The blockchain signing by
inserting hashes does provide the same level of data integrity because it uses the same
27
cryptographic algorithms but does not ensure identification out of the box. Therefore,
signatories must take care of that themselves.
The blockchain is in this sense just an infrastructure where trusted services can be
built upon, including the use of hardware devices.
This paper has explored the benefits of a new method of cryptographic signing of legal
transactions using the Name-Value Storage technology (NVS) of Emercoin blockchain.
As we can see, it is not just a method of digital signing. Blockchain NVS technology
brings a user a set of services because of its design. NVS permanently stores users’
data in the ledger, allows ownership change by transferring data between blockchain
addresses, establishing its validity and even changing data, while keeping a history of
records with timestamps. With these methods users can connect blockchain technology
to the content of the legal text: for example, one can manage the date of legal
transaction use LEASE_TIME feature or create bearer instruments and evolve third
parties as an escrow or a notary, make gifts by granting the NVS record to recipients
blockchain address. This is different from just a signing a file, it is a new level of
digitization of legal transactions. The main conclusion is that the Carousel method can
be considered as an alternative to existing methods, but mass adoption requires
standardization and a normative background.
Acknowledgement
This paper is an outcome of the PhD research performed inside of the Joint
International Doctoral (Ph.D.) Degree in Law, Science and Technology, coordinated by
the University of Bologna, CIRSFID in cooperation with University of Turin,
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Tilburg University, Mykolas Romeris University,
The University of Luxembourg. Thanks to supervisors of Oleksii Konashevych
Professor Marta Poblet Balcell, RMIT University (Melbourne, Australia) and Professor
Pompeu Casanovas Romeu, La Trobe University (Melbourne, Australia). Special
thanks to Oleg Khovayko, who is a developer of Name Value Storage in Emercoin for
the consultation during this research.
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