=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2382/ICT4S2019_paper_14
|storemode=property
|title=Informal Processing of Electronic Waste in Agbogbloshie, Ghana: A Complex Adaptive Systems Perspective
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2382/ICT4S2019_paper_14.pdf
|volume=Vol-2382
|authors=Alice Frantz Schneider
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ict4s/Schneider19
}}
==Informal Processing of Electronic Waste in Agbogbloshie, Ghana: A Complex Adaptive Systems Perspective==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2382/ICT4S2019_paper_14.pdf
Informal processing of electronic waste in
Agbogbloshie, Ghana:
A complex adaptive systems perspective
Alice Frantz Schneider
Dept. of Informatics
University of Oslo
Oslo, Norway
alicefr@ifi.uio.no
Abstract— Agbogbloshie is a scrap metal yard in Ghana that washing machines), and 16.8 Mt to small equipment (e.g.
has achieved international notoriety for the improper manner in headphones, cameras, speakers). For this same period, the
which electronic waste (e-waste) is processed. However, little is United States and Canada produced about 20 kg of e-waste per
known about the reasons why this situation has not changed over capita, and Norway 28.5 kg – the highest quantity per capita in
the years. This paper focuses on the workers dismantling e-waste
in Agbogbloshie; in particular, mobile phones and computers. By
Europe. Although e-waste involves a multitude of devices, this
taking a Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) approach to e-waste paper focuses on mobile phones and computers.
management in Ghana, I investigate the dismantling activity and Not surprisingly, the highest amounts of electronics are
the environmental and social hazards associated with it. Data consumed in high-income countries, but many of these end up
have been collected through on-site interviews and observations. in emerging economies as second-hand goods [5]–[7]. When
The analysis shows a dismantling process that is able to adapt to no longer used, these electronics stay in the country, shifting
changing circumstances; the role of market prices in regulating the e-waste problem to countries that do not have the capacity
the input of devices and output of components; and the organiza- to properly recycle such devices [8]. Schluep et al. [9] dis-
tion of activities through diverse groups. The migration of work-
cussed some of the challenges of e-waste recycling in emerging
ers from rural and urban areas functions as a kind of feedback
loop into the system. Applying CAS as an analytical tool provides
economies already in the first ICT4S Conference.
detailed insights and improved knowledge related to the charac- Agbogbloshie is a scrap metal yard – located in Accra,
teristics and behaviours of the workers dismantling e-waste in Ghana – that has achieved international notoriety for the man-
Agbogbloshie, as well as their relations with other agents in the ner in which e-waste is processed [5], [7], [10], [11]. The site is
system. On a wider perspective, it enables a better understanding considered as one of the most polluted urban environments in
of the complexity in e-waste management systems. the world due to the present informal processing practices and
Index Terms— E-waste management system; manual the lack of governmental regulation [5], [10].
dismantling; recycling; sustainability; waste electrical and Workers processing e-waste in Agbogbloshie are exposed
electronic equipment.
to toxic gases and other dangerous species on a regular basis,
which is reflected on their poor health status [7], [12]. The ac-
I. INTRODUCTION tivity also affects the people living nearby, and furthermore,
In 2008, more than one billion personal computers (PC) results in severe environmental impacts [13]–[15].
were in use worldwide [1]. Only 7 years later, in 2015, this In this paper, I apply Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) as
number had doubled, showing more than two billion operation- an analytical tool to explore the complexity of informal e-waste
al PC’s [1]. For mobile phones, the lifespan does not exceed an processing. I address the following research question: How can
average of two years [2]. These are only two examples that CAS help in understanding the processing of e-waste in
demonstrate our strong and growing consumption of electron- Agbogbloshie?
ics. High levels of production and consumption have a direct In CAS, a system consists of many agents that adapt or
impact on electronic waste (e-waste) generated, this latter learn through interacting with others in the system [16]. This
pointed out by Hilty [3] as an emerging risk for society. study focuses on agents dismantling e-waste in Agbogbloshie,
In 2016, 44.7 million tonnes (Mt) of e-waste were generat- and their interactions and interdependencies with other agents
ed worldwide, corresponding to 6.1 kg per capita [4]. From in the e-waste management system in Ghana.
this, 0.7 Mt corresponds to lamps, 3.9 Mt to Small IT (e.g. mo- Section two brings a short overview of research addressing
bile phones, printers, desktop PCs), 6.6 Mt to screens and mon- CAS, and its applicability as an analytical tool to waste man-
itors (e.g. cathode ray tube monitors, flat display panel moni- agement. Sections three and four describe, respectively, the
tors), 7.6 Mt to temperature exchange equipment (e.g. fridges, methods used and the organization of activities in Agbog-
air conditioners), 9.1 Mt to large equipment (e.g. dishwashers, bloshie. Section five presents detailed results of investigations
into the informal processing of e-waste, with a focus on the The positive feedback loop, thus, enables a CAS to be in a state
dismantling activity. In section six, different CAS properties of change.
identified in this system are discussed. The last section con-
B. CAS in waste management research
cludes with some remarks on CAS as an analytical tool to un-
derstand the informal processing of e-waste in Agbogbloshie. Waste Management Systems (WMS) are highly complex
systems that are often in a state of change. These systems re-
II. COMPLEX ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS ceive information from the environment they operate, under a
CAS analyse the interactions and interdependencies of var- high level of unpredictability, and adapt accordingly. As a re-
ious agents in a system, as well as the changes that occur due to sult, such adaptation leads to changes in the environment.
such interactions [17]. In order to address sustainability in and The application of CAS in waste management research has
by ICT, it is indispensable to explore the multitude of agents resulted in a better understanding of the complexity of WMS.
involved in each of the life cycle phases of such technologies Specifically, on improved knowledge of the characteristics and
(e.g. design, production, consumption, recycling). behaviours of the agents involved in these systems, and impacts
This paper relies on the definitions adapted from Cohen and in their environment.
Axelrod [18]: An agent is an individual with the ability to in- Seadon [24] presents the study of waste management in
teract and respond to events happening in its environment. En- New Zealand – including waste generation, collection, and
tities that lack qualities of agents – instead, being objects that disposal – as a CAS. “A WMS and its environment interact and
are used by the latter – are defined as artifacts. Different types create dynamic, emergent properties through quasi-equilibrium
of agents form a population of agents when using similar strat- and state change, non-linear changes and non-random futures.
egies. The system is composed, thus, of “one or more popula- The environment in which the WMS operates gives feedback to
tions of agents [...], all the strategies of all the agents [...], along the system and changes the system” [24, p. 1645]. By exploring
with the relevant artifacts and environmental factors” [18, p. 6]. a series of links between the components of the system, the
author justifies the application of an integrated approach to
A. CAS Properties move towards more sustainable societies.
A CAS has particular characteristics and properties that dif- Ikhlayel [25] addresses the lack of integrative thinking in
ferentiate it from other systems [19]. In this section, I address modern societies and applies such to e-waste management sys-
some of these, which are later applied to the case study in the tems. Based on field trips to Vietnam and Jordan, the author
discussion section. proposes an integrated approach to improve e-waste manage-
One of the main properties of a CAS is a high level of ad- ment in developing countries. Both the composition of e-waste
aptation, which strengthens the system’s resilience when a per- – with its associated environmental impacts – and the nature of
turbation occurs. Usually, a large number of agents in the sys- e-waste management form the rationale for employing the pro-
tem interact and adapt over time to improve performance, posed approach.
learning from experience [16]. Agent-Based Modelling (ABM) is used in order to under-
Another property of a CAS is its non-linearity. Since the re- stand and model a CAS, through the identification of agents
lations among its agents are non-linear, the outcomes are to and their interactions in the system. In this regard, Bollinger et
some extent unpredictable. This gives CAS the potential for al. [26] apply an ABM of material flows connected to the pro-
chaotic behaviour and randomness [20]. duction, consumption, and recycling of mobile phones. In their
The property of emergence means that the system’s out- analysis, they focus on the interaction among agents trading
come is the result of combined agents’ behaviour. Such an out- metals. The authors conclude that the implementation of com-
come cannot be achieved from the isolated behaviour of agents bined interventions shows more potential to promote a shift to
in the system [21]. Therefore, “the emergent properties of sys- closed-loop flow systems than single interventions.
tems are lost when the system is broken down into parts and
parts removed from the system lose the emergent properties III. RESEARCH DESIGN AND CONTEXT
they previously possessed” [20, p. 49]. A form of emergent This paper is part of a larger research project that analyses
behaviour is self-organization, in which new structures are de- e-waste management systems in different countries. The pro-
veloped without a central control [19], [20], [22]. ject explores the multitude of agents and processes involved, as
An important feature of a CAS is that it can have both neg- well as their interconnections, in each of the studied systems.
ative and positive feedback loops. In the negative feedback The e-waste management in Ghana is understood as a CAS
loop, the state of one type of agents affects the other in the op- that involves several types of agents. These include producers
posite direction, keeping the system within its original bounda- of electronics with take-back systems; government; Non-
ries. On the opposite, the positive feedback loop stimulates Governmental Organizations (NGOs); consumers of electron-
change by providing a source of instability, driving the system ics at the disposal stage; and companies with intermediate pro-
outside of its normal parameters. “The notion that equilibrium cessing. Other types of agents in this CAS – here understood as
was the norm to which a system would return if there were a a population of agents for having similar strategies – include
small deviation, via the mechanism of a negative feedback the ones in Agbogbloshie: the scavengers collecting e-waste;
loop, is challenged by the discovery of positive feedback loops the workers dismantling e-waste; the workers burning cables;
that drive a system forward beyond equilibrium” [23, p. 454]. the “middlemen” intermediating the scrap from Agbogbloshie
to the recycling facilities; and the board members of the Great- living at Old Fadama and markets such as the onion and the
er Accra Scrap Dealers Association (GASDA). yam market located in between. The slum grew in the 1990s
From the multitude of agents involved in the e-waste man- due to waves of migration, with refugees coming from the
agement system in Ghana, this paper brings a detailed study of north of the country due to a combination of intertribal con-
one type of agents: the workers dismantling electronics in flicts and decline in agricultural opportunities [29].
Agbogbloshie. The focus on their activity enables to establish GreenAd is an environmental NGO that conducts research
connections with other agents in the system and to understand and initiatives on e-waste management in the country. In an
the informal processing of e-waste from a CAS perspective. interview, the NGO explained that workers have increasingly
Data were collected in a continuous two-week period in regarded Agbogbloshie as a possibility to increase their in-
September of 2017 and included visits to several points of in- come. For this reason, the area has received rural and urban
terest and organizations, both in the capital (Accra) and adja- migration from different parts of Ghana. In addition, some
cent cities. Data were collected through a mixed methods ap- come from neighbouring countries, particularly Nigeria, with a
proach that combined observations, interviews, photography similar purpose.
and videos on the e-waste management in Ghana. For this pa-
per, the focus is on the data collected about the activity of dis- V. THE DISMANTLING OF ELECTRONICS
mantling e-waste in Agbogbloshie, particularly mobile phones The activity for dismantling electronics in Agbogbloshie
and computers. happens most often in groups spread across the scrap yard. I
I visited the Agbogbloshie site seven times during the stay have conducted visits to one of the biggest groups – denoted as
and engaged in conversations with 10-15 workers. The conver- big group in the following – dismantling various types of elec-
sations were conducted while observing their activities. Data tronics on the site, with around 15 workers. A small group that
collection was strengthened through observation on the e-waste focuses on mobile phones, and an individual worker who dis-
processing performed by various workers on the site. mantles mainly laptops, have further complemented data col-
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with organiza- lection.
tions connected to e-waste management in Ghana. This paper The activity of dismantling, and especially the prior scav-
brings data collected through interviews with the GASDA in enging, demands time. The leader of the big group mentioned
Agbogbloshie, as well as with the NGO Green Advocacy Gha- that, during the first years of activity, there was not a large
na (GreenAd) in Sakumono. number of electronics to work with. As a result, their income
had to be complemented with other activities. With the passing
IV. THE ORGANIZATION OF ACTIVITIES years and a growing amount of e-waste arriving in Agbog-
Agbogbloshie receives high amounts of e-waste and is re- bloshie, their whole livelihoods started depending on the dis-
garded as one of the most toxic sites in the world [5], [10]. Alt- mantling of electronics. In the case of the small group, the
hough an open-air site with informal activity, it relies on the number of devices is considerably less, and they complement
GASDA to organize the workers allowed on site, the activities their income by selling clothes in the same place where the
performed, and the access of visitors. Interviews – translated dismantling is performed.
from Ashanti – with the chairman of the association and main The big group dismantles various types of electronics,
members of the board were conducted to receive permission to mainly mobile phones, desktops, and laptops. Each member of
visit the site and to collect data. the group scavenges the electronics during the afternoon and
According to information obtained through the interviews, dismantles them in the next morning. There is no clear division
the GASDA was registered with only 11 members in 1979, of work: they all scavenge, and they all dismantle the various
which has later grown to 3000-4000 members. Everyone work- types of devices they have each collected. Working hours vary
ing in Agbogbloshie must be a member before starting with depending on the amount gathered but mostly comprehend
their activities. The work is hierarchically divided, based on long journeys. In the case of the small group, workers disman-
experience: the highest positions often belong to the ones tle electronics that they have most frequently bought from the
working on the site for longer. The ones with the highest posi- scavengers in advance.
tions coordinate around 10-20 newer members and teach them Workers in Agbogbloshie have direct contact with the
how to dismantle different devices. ground, often muddy due to rain. The working environment is
New members usually start at the GASDA by burning the very precarious, which reflects in ergonomic problems. Work-
cables [27] or as scavengers [15]. The scavengers go around ers often turn computer towers into benches to have a place to
the neighbourhood – and sometimes beyond the city – to col- sit while dismantling electronics (see Fig. 1) or work in a
lect metal scrap. In order to buy it, the novices are pre-financed crouching position for long periods of time.
by their leaders. The e-waste processing in Agbogbloshie is The workers do not use any Personal Protective Equipment
male-dominated [28], and women are found in the area selling (PPE) in their activity, even though dealing with devices that
water and food, often accompanied by children. release toxic substances. During an interview, the chairman of
Adjacent to Agbogbloshie is Old Fadama: a large urban the GASDA highlighted that NGOs often come to provide
slum, separated from the scrap yard by a few hundred meters, workers with PPE and information, but that the workers most
with the Abose-Okai Road and the Odaw River. Both work as often do not follow advices, and do not use the PPE provided.
an extended community, with workers in Agbogbloshie often
For mobile phones, different models demand different
tools: devices that have screws are dismantled with screwdriv-
ers; while the ones with glue are dismantled with hammers.
Screws make it possible to better separate the components, but
the workers in Agbogbloshie prefer the glued mobile phones
because it takes less time to open them. Pliers and the cold
chisels are mainly used to assist in separating the components
of various electronics, including laptops and desktops.
Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) contain precious metals, re-
sulting in a high value if gathered in large amounts. Therefore,
workers in Agbogbloshie look mainly for these components
when dismantling electronics. This strategy is known as cherry
picking [6], in which only a few components are targeted
throughout the process.
The PCBs have different market prices depending on the
electronics (e.g. computers, mobile phones). For this reason,
they are stored separately, according to type. After a considera-
ble amount is gathered, the PCBs are sold per kilo to middle-
men. Following, they are sent abroad for further processing,
because Ghana does not have the infrastructure to properly
extract and separate the related metals.
The working environment in Agbogbloshie is mostly open-
air. The big group has a shipping container to store the PCBs
after dismantling the devices (see Fig. 2), and a simple roof to
protect themselves from rain and direct sun. The small group
works open-air – at the border of the Odaw River – and stores
the PCBs on rice sacks. The individual worker has a small con-
tainer, which he uses both for storing the materials, and as a
working place.
The workers dismantling electronics often dispose of other
components with inferior value. For instance, it is common to
see computer chassis spread out over the area of Agbogbloshie
(see Fig. 3). Eventually, some components are picked up by
scavengers to be locally recycled. Others, of insignificant value
for the workers, remain in the scrap yard. Components are tar-
geted based on their profitability and on market demand – if
workers do not have a buyer for the specific component, this is
thrown away.
Fig. 1. Dismantling of electronics
The tools used to dismantle electronics are simple, such as
scissors, pliers, screwdrivers, hammers, and cold chisels (see
Fig. 1). Scissors are mainly used to separate cables from other
components. The other tools are used interchangeably, depend-
ing on the design of the electronics and the availability of tools.
For the processing of cables, workers look mainly for cop-
per. After the separation, cables are put together in a separate
pile to be further assessed: This most often includes an open-air
burning process, performed in an area away from the disman- Fig. 2. Storage of PCBs
tling.
Workers dismantling fridges, air conditioners, and car bat-
teries work in the same environment as the ones dismantling
mobile phones and computers. With such a multitude of devic-
es handled in the same area, the complexity of hazards is high.
Workers dismantling mobile phones and computers in Agbog-
bloshie are thus exposed to the direct risks of their activity, in
addition to the indirect risks of other activities conducted in the
scrap yard.
VI. DISCUSSION
Above, I presented results from my investigations related to
the dismantling of electronics in the scrap metal site of Agbog-
bloshie, Ghana. In this section, I connect my main results to the
CAS properties of adaptation, non-linearity, and emergence.
Further, I discuss the migration of workers from urban and ru-
ral areas to Agbogbloshie as a feedback loop. The properties, as
well as the related examples that emerged from this study, have
Fig. 3. Disposing of computer chassis
strong interconnections. The examples are discussed according
The mobile phone batteries have most often a different to a specific CAS property, even though they could be some-
route than the rest of the devices: These often recirculate sever- times connected to more than one.
al times in second-hand markets in the city. As a result, the It is worth to highlight that the analysis is based on data col-
majority of mobile phones that reach Agbogbloshie no longer lected in a period of 2 weeks in Ghana. Even though Agbog-
have batteries, and workers dismantling the devices do not have bloshie was visited several times, the time framework repre-
regular buyers for the batteries. Thus, the few mobile phone sents a limitation. The analysis of one type of agents in this
batteries that get to Agbogbloshie are usually thrown away in CAS is not meant to be taken as exhaustive and further data
the scrap yard. These can later be picked up by scavengers to collection (e.g. ethnographic research) is suggested to comple-
be resold in second-hand markets. Otherwise, they remain in ment this study.
the area, falling out of the recycling system. A. Adaptation
The lack of proper tools and PPE – combined with an im- In CAS, equilibrium is rare and temporary. Therefore, the
proper working environment – leads to a series of health risks. agents in the system must constantly innovate to be able to
The chairman of the GASDA explained that work injuries are adapt to new scenarios and changing circumstances. Here, ad-
common in Agbogbloshie: he gave the example of a worker aptation can be connected to the design of electronics and the
who, when dismantling a device, lost vision on one eye due to a associated dismantling processes.
sharp piece of iron. As one of the workers in Agbogbloshie In section five, it was shown that design plays an important
pointed out, the constant loud noises also have effects on their role in the manual dismantling of electronics: the various kinds
wellbeing: of devices and models demand a constant adaptation of the
“Sometimes, because of the hammer, at the end of the day, workers to the changing circumstances.
we have a headache.” In the case of mobile phones, I observed that devices were
The workers have also mentioned other incidences: for in- dismantled in different ways depending on their design. For
stance, injuries arising from falling tools or materials. Accord- devices that had screws – prevailing in older devices – workers
ing to the workers, these incidences are mostly due to a lack of used a screwdriver to assess and separate the PCB from the rest
attention and hence, usually happen after long hours of work. of the device. In more recent models, however, many internal
The use of improper tools for the activity is also a concern, as it components are assembled with glue. For these types of
poses challenges – and often makes it unfeasible – to properly phones, the dismantling is done by using a hammer rather than
dismantle certain components of electronics. a screwdriver, which is considerably faster and depicts one
Health hazards arising from the processing of e-waste in example of adaptation in the system.
Agbogbloshie go further than the localized and individual is- I did not observe the dismantling process of any modular
sues discussed above, as GreenAd explains: phone during my investigations in Agbogbloshie. However,
“In 2010, we did a health survey of the people there to see one aspect to question in this regard is whether modular de-
what they've been exposing themselves to […]. We saw that in signed phones would entail a new level of adaptation from the
their blood there's a high level of led, cadmium, arsenic. agents, to maintain themselves in this system.
There's cancer growing, they're not safe. They get the led from Adaptation is strongly connected to other CAS properties,
the [car] batteries they work on, they break it apart and they which are discussed in the following. For instance, workers
pour the acid out, they use their bare hand to break it up, to adapt their processes depending on the components that have
load up trucks, and from the cars they just pour the oil out.” the most value, which leads to non-linear behaviour in the sys-
tem.
B. Non-linearity at the site directly affects the behaviour of agents in the system.
The relations among agents in a CAS are often non-linear. The buyers interested in specific components determine what
This makes it difficult to predict how the system – as well as its goes out of Agbogbloshie via “semi-controlled” pathways.
individual agents – will react to changing circumstances, exter- Everything in between (e.g. the accumulation of materials that
nal and internal ones. As will be shown below, the sum of is not of interest for the market) adds unpredictability to the
agents in Agbogbloshie can react in non-linear – and hence, system, which may lead to further instability and chaos.
unpredictable – ways to changing circumstances, such as varia- C. Emergence
tions in market prices. Such prices act as a regulator in the sys-
The outcome of a CAS is the result of the combined agents’
tem: for the input of devices, for the processes performed, and
behaviour, resulting in its emergent property. In Agbogbloshie,
for the output of components.
this became clear in the way each activity is organized, and its
Concerning the number of devices entering Agbogbloshie,
connection to other activities in the e-waste management sys-
there has been a steady increase over the years, which also has
tem.
its effects in the area itself. In the first years of e-waste activi-
The activity of dismantling electronics does not happen in
ties in Agbogbloshie, workers had to rely on other activities to
isolation. Instead, workers organize themselves mostly through
complement their income. However, with the increase of e-
groups to conduct their work, such as the mentioned big group
waste in the area, the big group now relies on the dismantling
and small group. In addition, the GASDA represents a kind of
activity as its single way of subsistence. It is thus possible to
self-organization mechanism in the system, because workers
establish a strong relationship between the intensity of e-waste
need to be members of it in order to be able to work in Agbog-
processing in Agbogbloshie and the number of electronics dis-
bloshie.
carded in the area.
Activities within the same group often do not have a clear
Market prices affect which processes are actually per-
division of tasks: all workers can scavenge and dismantle the
formed in Agbogbloshie. For instance, PCBs are stored accord-
several kinds of electronics they find. Therefore, there is no
ing to different kinds because they vary in price. In turn, the
real control of the activities performed, and the workers dis-
workers’ income in Agbogbloshie is dependent on the number
mantling e-waste are in a constant state of self-organization and
of devices dismantled and on the prices obtained for the target-
emergence.
ed PCBs. Thus, the workers’ income, as well as the material
flow, are directly interlinked with the market prices. This re- A further aspect of emergence in the system is represented
sults in a non-linear behaviour. The lack of regulations also by the way the agents that dismantle e-waste interact with other
leads to such behaviour: For instance, the cherry picking prac- agents. Since the activity does not happen in isolation, the
tices are common, in which the PCBs are targeted due to their workers performing the dismantling interact with other agents
high value on the market. that are directly related to their work (e.g. consumers of elec-
tronics at the disposal stage, companies performing further pro-
Another example that adds non-linearity to this complex
cessing). These, in turn, interact with agents that are directly
system is related to the components and materials leaving
related to them, creating a chain in this CAS. Thus, the e-waste
Agbogbloshie. Mobile phone batteries, for instance, usually
management system emerges and is maintained by the connec-
recirculate in second-hand markets and indeed, the vast majori-
tion among several agents, and their respective activities.
ty of mobile phones arriving in Agbogbloshie no longer con-
tains the batteries. As a result, the common practices for the D. Feedback loops
dismantling of mobile phones do not involve the extraction and A CAS exhibits two kinds of feedback loops: negative and
monetization of the batteries, since the workers do not have positive ones. A negative feedback loop refers to a mechanism
regular buyers for them. Thus, whenever a mobile phone ar- that corresponds to a certain deviation in the system to bring it
rives with a battery, it is often simply discarded on the site and back to, or towards, its equilibrium. A positive feedback loop,
falls out of the system. This exhibits another potential chaotic on the opposite, denotes a disturbance that drives the system
behaviour in the CAS. The connection with the market is clear: beyond the initial state of equilibrium [23].
if there are no defined buyers, the components remain in the Defining an initial state of equilibrium for the e-waste man-
scrap yard. agement system in Ghana is difficult, and it is hard to assess
Computer chassis are another example that illustrates how whether the system has ever been in such a state. However, on
the market prices act as a regulator in the CAS. Computer chas- first order, one could define a state of equilibrium by requiring
sis have low prices in comparison with PCBs and thus, often that the number of materials and agents in the system were
remain in the scrap yard because of the lack of buyers. This constant. More specifically, for a given time, the amount of e-
leads to uncontrolled accumulation of materials in the system, waste entering the system would have to be equivalent to the
which adds an additional component of unpredictability to the amount of materials leaving it (either as recycled materials or
system, as there are no defined input/output pathways for these as components forwarded to be recycled outside of the system).
materials. In addition, the amount of agents would have to remain con-
The discussed examples demonstrate clearly that market stant, which means that the number of agents coming into the
prices act as a regulator in the dismantling of electronics in system would have to be the same as the number of agents that
Agbogbloshie, both for the input of devices and the output of leave the system.
components and materials. The amount of electronics arriving
By applying this simplified definition of an equilibrium Further, the e-waste processing in Agbogbloshie is directly
state to my investigations on the e-waste dismantling in connected to the consumption phase, since the amount of elec-
Agbogbloshie, it becomes clear that the system is currently not tronics consumed has a direct impact on the number of devices
in equilibrium. This is valid for both the flow of materials and that enter Agbogbloshie. This, in turn, impacts the intensity of
the number of agents involved. the dismantling activities. In the same line, the recycling phase
The flow of materials in Agbogbloshie is an example of a is also affected by the market prices: the interest of buyers in
positive feedback loop. This can be seen, for instance, by the specific components for material recovery impacts on the out-
fact that the most profitable components (PCBs) are primarily put of materials from the scrap yard.
targeted, while others are often inappropriately disposed of as The organization of activities through diverse groups repre-
waste. This drives the system away from a state of equilibrium sents a property of emergence in this CAS. The flow of materi-
since certain materials tend to accumulate in the system. als, as well as the migration of workers from rural and urban
The amount of agents entering Agbogbloshie is another ex- areas to Agbogbloshie, functions as a kind of positive feedback
ample of a positive feedback loop, which is manifested by an loop, driving the system beyond equilibrium.
increasing population density in the area, through waves of Based on these findings, I argue that it is of crucial im-
rural and urban migration. Such growth in the number of work- portance to further explore the complex behaviour of agents in
ers drive the system beyond its normal operating parameters Agbogbloshie – as well as the interactions and interdependen-
and represents a source of instability. cies among them – in order to improve the e-waste manage-
In this regard, it is worth to highlight that the concept of ment in Ghana.
equilibrium is solely stating that the parameters (here agents) E-waste management varies considerably, depending on a
that determine the state of a system are interacting in such way, multitude of aspects – such as economy, environmental aware-
that the system remains in the same state over time. Equilibri- ness, consumption patterns, etc. – and cannot be fully under-
um does not mean that a system is not imposing negative im- stood by focusing on only one aspect. The CAS theory consid-
pacts on itself or on connected systems. As such, it is possible ers the diversity of activities and behaviours of agents in a sys-
to have a system that is in equilibrium, yet generating signifi- tem, as well as their interconnections. It is, therefore, a power-
cant environmental and social impacts. Nonetheless, a state of ful tool to target different settings such as the one of this study.
equilibrium is usually preferable to a state of non-equilibrium, The application of the theory of CAS as an analytical tool
since such systems are easier to be managed and improved be- has revealed unprecedented and detailed insights into the char-
cause the outcomes are to some extent more predictable. acteristics and behaviours of workers dismantling e-waste in
Agbogbloshie. In addition, it has resulted in improved
VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS knowledge of their relations with other agents in the system.
The e-waste management in Ghana is a system with a varie- My findings show that the dismantling of electronics in
ty of agents involved. These adapt according to the circum- Agbogbloshie is part of a complex system, with agents interact-
stances and interact with one another in complex ways. In this ing in a variety of ways. This system has several properties
paper, I have focused on one of the involved activities, namely associated with CAS, such as adaptation, non-linearity, and
the dismantling of electronics. Based on empirical data collect- emergence. Understanding these properties – and their connec-
ed in Agbogbloshie, I showed that the system faces a series of tions – is indispensable when aiming for improvements in the
challenges that go beyond technical ones. system.
The activity of dismantling e-waste in Agbogbloshie is as- The challenges of e-waste management in Ghana have deep
sociated with severe environmental and social hazards. Work- roots on social injustices and underlying causes. Nevertheless,
ers are faced with very poor working conditions: lack of ergo- the CAS theory has enabled me to explore the present scenario
nomics, proper tools, and PPE have been evidenced. In addi- and brought further knowledge on why the situation has not
tion, they have direct contact with dangerous chemicals on a improved over the years.
daily basis, which imposes serious health risks. The improper I argue that the aim of an e-waste management system
processing of e-waste results in the release of toxins and pollu- should be to achieve a sustainable equilibrium: one in which
tants, and causes significant environmental hazards in the air, the input of devices is equivalent to the output of recycled ma-
soil, and water streams. terials, with minimum socio-environmental impact. Neverthe-
In addition, the collected data gives insights into the con- less, my findings indicate that the system in Ghana is not in
nection of the e-waste management system in the end-of-life equilibrium: Instead, it is in a state of constant adaptation to the
phase with respect to other product life cycle phases. For in- changing circumstances.
stance, it was shown that the design of devices directly influ- In order to move towards a sustainable equilibrium in such
ences the way electronics are dismantled. This demands from a system, efforts should first tackle its most unstable and chaot-
the agents the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. ic components. In Agbogbloshie, one of the most pressing is-
Market prices for devices and components play an im- sues identified was, that the workers dismantling electronics
portant role in regulating activities in Agbogbloshie. As such, primarily focus on the most valuable materials, while the least
market prices are connected to the non-linearity property in this valuable are often ignored. The application of CAS has helped
system: both related to the input of devices and to the output of to identify some of the crucial issues related to the processing
materials and components. of e-waste in Agbogbloshie. Furthermore, it has enabled to
explore the complexities among agents involved in the e-waste [12] K. A. Asante et al., “Multi-trace element levels and arsenic
management system in Ghana. These results will be useful for speciation in urine of e-waste recycling workers from
future investigations and should be helpful to find solutions Agbogbloshie, Accra in Ghana,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 424,
pp. 63–73, May 2012.
that lead to a more sustainable and balanced environment,
[13] T. Itai et al., “Variation and distribution of metals and
which will ultimately improve the socio-environmental and metalloids in soil/ash mixtures from Agbogbloshie e-waste
socio-economic circumstances in Agbogbloshie. recycling site in Accra, Ghana,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 470–
471, pp. 707–716, Feb. 2014.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [14] N. M. Tue et al., “Release of chlorinated, brominated and mixed
This paper is written as part of Sustainable Market Actors halogenated dioxin-related compounds to soils from open
for Responsible Trade (SMART), a HORIZON2020-financed burning of e-waste in Agbogbloshie (Accra, Ghana),” J.
research project (grant agreement No. 693642). Sincere thanks Hazard. Mater., vol. 302, pp. 151–157, Jan. 2016.
to Prof. Dr. Martin Oteng-Ababio, Louis Kusi Frimpong, and [15] E. F. Amankwaa, “Livelihoods in risk: exploring health and
environmental implications of e-waste recycling as a livelihood
Alexander Buertey of the University of Ghana, for their support
strategy in Ghana,” J. Mod. Afr. Stud., vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 551–
in my data collection. In addition, I would like to thank the 575, Dec. 2013.
workers in Agbogbloshie, the organizations that participated in [16] J. H. Holland, “Studying Complex Adaptive Systems,” J. Syst.
this research, and Dr. Maja van der Velden and Dr. Hanne Sci. Complex., vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1–8, Mar. 2006.
Cecilie Geirbo of the University of Oslo for sharing their time [17] R. Abbott and M. Hadžikadić, “Complex Adaptive Systems,
and knowledge. Systems Thinking, and Agent-Based Modeling,” in Advanced
Technologies, Systems, and Applications, Springer, Cham, 2017,
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