=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2395/paper3
|storemode=property
|title=Accommodating Indigenous People When Using Technology to Learn Their Ancestral Language
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2395/paper3.pdf
|volume=Vol-2395
|authors=Delaney Lothian,Gokce Akcayir,Carrie Demmans Epp
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/aied/LothianAE19
}}
==Accommodating Indigenous People When Using Technology to Learn Their Ancestral Language==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2395/paper3.pdf
Accommodating Indigenous People When Using Technology to
Learn Their Ancestral Language
Delaney Lothian Gökçe Akçayır Carrie Demmans Epp
Department of Computing Science Department of Computing Science Department of Computing Science
University of Alberta University of Alberta University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
dlothian@ualberta.ca akcayir@ualberta.ca demmanse@ualberta.ca
ABSTRACT However, the historical and current social context of the majority
This study explores the needs and expectations of Indigenous peo- of those who want to learn these languages means they will have
ple of Western Canada with respect to learning their ancestral to do so outside of formal learning environments. Moreover, the
language through technology. Using a qualitative phenomenologi- revitalization of these languages and their learning by members of
cal research design, we conducted focus groups. Content analysis geographically-distributed communities means that technologies,
of the collected data revealed they face various barriers that in- speci�cally adaptive computer assisted language learning (CALL)
hibit their learning of their ancestral language. A lack of exposure tools, are well suited to supporting the independent and long-term
to practice and limited resources are among these barriers. Our needs of these language learners. In this paper, we explore how In-
�ndings demonstrate the importance of using the community di- digenous Canadians need and want to be accommodated in learning
alect in technological tools to support learning ancestral languages their ancestral language through technology as a lifelong-learning
instead of focusing only on vocabulary. Indigenous peoples’ ances- practice.
tral language learning is associated with several socio-cultural and
political aspects. However, it should be possible to promote this 1.1 Computer Assisted Language Learning
lifelong-learning practice with the help of technologies that are Many Indigenous languages fall under the banner of less commonly
designed to support individual learner needs and expectations. taught languages. These languages currently su�er from a lack of
resources. This lack of resources can be attributed to low enrol-
CCS CONCEPTS ment rates, few trained instructors, and a lack of textbooks [14].
• Computer Uses in Education; • Information interfaces and Although CALL could provide access to trained instructors, it cur-
presentation (e.g., HCI); rently su�ers from a lack of already made resources and funding.
This lack of e�ective and engaging resources is a common barrier to
KEYWORDS language learning [18]. It is possible to increase the accessibility of
these kinds of resources with CALL by enhancing access e�ciency
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), Language Revital-
through digital multimedia technologies, authenticity using video
ization, Ancestral Language, Indigenous, Informal Learning
and the Internet, and comprehensibility through learner control
ACM Reference Format: and multimedia annotations [24]. One advantage of multimedia
Delaney Lothian, Gökçe Akçayır, and Carrie Demmans Epp. 2019. Accom-
technologies for CALL is their allowance for the creation of stronger
modating Indigenous People When Using Technology to Learn Their An-
memory links and for faster completion of learning tasks [20]. Us-
cestral Language. In Proceedings of AIED ’19: Workshop On Supporting Life-
long Learning (SILL 2019) (AIED ’19). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 7 pages. ing video and the Internet for language learning can provide up to
https://doi.org/10.1145/1122445.1122456 date and culturally-relevant learning material [9], as well as support
the improvement of listening comprehension and oral production
1 INTRODUCTION [10][8]. Lastly, giving the user control through multimedia anno-
For generations, the Indigenous peoples of Canada have been losing tations allows them to adapt said resources to their current level.
their languages through forced assimilation as a result of govern- However, there is still a lack of research surrounding when certain
ment programs such as the Indian Residential School system. Recent types of CALL technologies are appropriate for certain users and
changes and recognition of the harm that was done through these contexts [11][19].
programs has resulted in reconciliation e�orts that focus, in-part,
on the reclamation and re-learning of these almost lost languages.
1.2 Indigenous Language Learning
It is common for an Indigenous person of North American to be
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or
classroom
Copyright useheld
is granted
by thewithout fee provided
author(s). that copies are
Use permitted not made
under or distributed
the CC-BY reluctant to learn or pass on their ancestral language because Eng-
for pro�t or
license commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation
CreativeCommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ lish (or French, depending on their location) is the language of
on the �rst page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM safety and success. This attitude can be a result of the everyday
must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish,
to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior speci�c permission and/or a experience of living in an English dominated society that requires
fee. Request permissions from permissions@acm.org. English �uency and conformity for social and �nancial success.
AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL This results in “Native Americans who desire to succeed in pro-
© 2019 Association for Computing Machinery.
ACM ISBN 978-x-xxxx-xxxx-x/YY/MM. . . $15.00 fessional careers or who feel an attraction to popular culture or
https://doi.org/10.1145/1122445.1122456 non-native religions often come to identify with the language of
AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL Lothian, Akçayır, and Demmans Epp
those pursuits” [5]. Alongside internal pressures, this attitude is Language Project (facilitative), Cheyenne Dictionary (facilitative),
supported by external pressures in the form of “policies and atti- Learn Cree Online (collaborative), Talk Sauk (collaborative), An-
tudes in the majority society” [4]. This attitude is often the result ishinaabemda (instructional), and East Cree (instructional). As can
of compulsory historical systems that were put in place, largely to be seen, each of the three activity types has an exemplar. However,
eradicate Indigenous languages and cultures. In a survey done in a the full distribution of these websites across these activity types
Navajo community in America, one respondent stated, in reference is unbalanced. Currently there is an “emphasis on memorization
to their experience at an Indian Residential School, “if they caught of isolated vocabulary, as well as limited contexts of language use”
us speaking Navajo, they would wash our mouths out with soap. I [23].
did not teach my sons Navajo. I did not want them to go through
that. It was awful. English is the language to get ahead. I taught
them English” [1]. Like America, Canada has a history of residential 1.4 Research Questions
schools which were only fully closed “in 1996 after a duration of As can be seen above, Indigenous peoples’ attitudes towards learn-
almost 150 years” [15]. ing their ancestral language can be mixed due the historical con-
A key issue surrounding language revitalization is the integra- text of their community. These attitudes contribute to the barriers
tion of Indigenous languages into established educational systems. faced by those who wish to learn their ancestral language. The
The concerns surrounding this endeavour mainly stem from the current state of technologies that aim to support the learning of
mainstream education system and how its approaches di�er from Indigenous languages also present a barrier. These technologies
those traditionally used by Indigenous peoples when teaching their predominantly employ dictionary-like approaches rather than per-
younger generation. For example, in the last 100 years, many In- sonalized approaches that support individual learner needs within
digenous languages have been written down using either roman their context.
orthography or a newly created alphabet of their own. However, Given this understanding we ask “How do members of Indige-
most of these languages were traditionally strictly oral which has nous communities view the use of technology to support language
lead to “controversy in some Aboriginal communities concerning revitalization?” and “How do Indigenous language learners want a
whether the Aboriginal language should be written at all” [4]. CALL system to accommodate their language-learning journey?”
Often in Indigenous communities, it is traditional for their an-
cestral language to be passed on from older generations to younger
ones. Moreover, this practice includes cultural teachings. Thus,
2 METHODS
it naturally arises that a key desire for Indigenous people is that
school-based language learning include “cultural teaching, for the This study was conducted in a phenomenological tradition, which
involvement of elders, for the goal to be real �uency” [4]. Although is de�ned as “a description of the meaning of the lived experiences
the attitudes Indigenous peoples have towards learning their an- for several individuals about a concept or a particular phenomenon”
cestral language may be nuanced and contain negative elements, [6]. This is re�ected in the focus group questions as they elicit
there are some that are strictly positive. As found in a survey of participants’ personal experiences with ancestral language and
the Echota people of northern Alabama; they were interested in technology.
learning their ancestral language because they value their ancestry,
their language, and their cultural tradition. Simply put, “respon-
dents ranked having Cherokee ancestors and keeping Cherokee 2.1 Participants
tradition alive most frequently as their primary incentive” [16]. This study consisted of two focus groups, each with four partici-
pants, for eight participants total. In this paper, participants have
been given pseudonyms for readability. Participants were recruited
1.3 Technology and Indigenous Language through community contacts. All participants were from provinces
Revitalization in Western Canada. Over half of participants had learned Michif or
CALL programs can be classi�ed into three activity types: facili- Cree in a formal classroom setting. The most recent generation in
tative, collaborative, and instructional [23]. Facilitative programs the participants’ family to attend Indian Residential Schools was
focus on providing language basics without any formal instruction a parent for one participant; for three participants, it was their
(e.g., dictionaries, songs). Collaborative programs aim to promote grandparents; for two, it was their great-grandparent. Two had
“the inclusion of more than one student into the language instruc- never had a relative attend. For a detailed breakdown of the above
tion”, and instructional technologies aim to explicitly teach learners demographics, see Table 1.
one or more subsystems of the language. It is worth noting that two pairs of participants (Jessica and Tim
With an increase of federal funding support programs, Indige- as well as Shirley and Richard) are in romantic relationships and
nous language-learning technologies have become more numerous three participants have familial ties to each other: a pair of sisters
in Canada. These instances of language-learning technologies often (Ashley and Amanda) and their distant relative (Shirley). Limiting
take the form of websites and mobile applications. While there factors may have arisen from these relationships, such as a potential
is increasing support and attention towards these technologies, reluctance to express an opinion within the focus group. While this
they regularly encounter technical issues due to their reliance on can limit the diversity of ideas, avoiding these types of tight ties is
“minimal grant funds as well as volunteer help” [23]. Some exam- di�cult because they are commonly encountered when working
ples of these websites and their activity types are the Mohegan with members of this population.
Accommodating Indigenous People in Language Learning AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL
Table 1: Participant Demographics
Participant Self-Identi�cation Age (years) Gender Last Generation in Residential School English French Cree Michif
Sarah First Nations 20-29 Female Parent X X X
Kim First Nations 20-29 Female Grandparent X X X
Jessica Métis 20-29 Female Grandparent X X X
Tim First Nations 20-29 Male Grandparent X X
Shirley Métis 70-79 Female None X X X
Ashley Métis 50-59 Female Great Grandparent X X
Amanda Métis 50-59 Female Great Grandparent X X X X
Richard Métis 70-79 Male None X X X
2.2 Data Collection 3.2 Ancestral Language and Identity
Data was collected during two focus groups consisting of four peo- When asked about how their ability to speak their ancestral lan-
ple each. Participants were asked questions relating to their current guage is tied to their sense of self and to their sense of belonging in
and familial relationship to their ancestral language(s), their expe- their community, most participants cited that learning or knowing
rience learning their ancestral language(s) through technology and their ancestral language would give them a sense of connection to
non-technology-based resources, and their desires and expectations their family, community, and culture. Amanda said, “language is
for technologies that would teach their ancestral language(s). Note culture”, and Ashley said, “it’s that connection. For me, it’s history”.
a semi-structured approach [21] was employed so these are not Tim also mentioned that learning Cree would help him connect with
an exhaustive list of the topics that were discussed, and there was his grandfather, citing “my mosôm [grandfather in Cree] speaks
variability across focus groups since follow-up questions were often like very little English. . . so there’s that like communication divide”.
asked at the discretion of the interviewer. Kim cited that given the chance to practice and use what she had
learned, she felt more connected: “It felt so good, like I just felt so
2.3 Data Analysis proud and connected and it just made, like it help me feel like a
stronger connection to it and just more like this is my identity.”
The recordings of the focus group interviews were transcribed and
At least half of the participants indicated or implied that knowing
analyzed using content analysis, without any coding scheme or
more about their ancestral language gave them pride in their culture.
pre-made template, by two researchers (Author 1 and 2). During the
The younger participants were more likely to cite learning their
analysis, a three stage process was employed [12]: review of data,
ancestral language as a way of discovering and reclaiming their
determining codes, and identifying themes. After going through all
cultural identity, with Sarah stating “it’s like a step closer to learning
stages of the process multiple times to validate �ndings, the data
your identity” and Tim stating that learning Cree was a “reclamation
analysis was �nalized.
of culture and identity”.
Older participants were more likely to cite learning or knowing
3 FINDINGS their ancestral language gave them a greater feeling of connection
3.1 Languages and Fluency with family, especially family from their childhood. Amanda said
The participants cited English, French, Cree, and Michif1 as their that hearing Cree or Michif “reminds me of all the people of my
ancestral languages. Seven participants cited English, seven cited childhood. . . so I feel like they’re with- connected when I hear it”.
Cree, four cited French, and �ve cited a variant of Michif. See Table
1 for the language distributions of participants.
Of the above languages Indigenous to Canada (Cree and Michif
variants) two participants spoke or understood minimal Michif.
Sarah described it as learning through interactions with her grand-
3.3 Language Transmission within Families
father and Amanda described her �uency as “a little tiny bit of Cree The last generation in the participants’ families to speak Cree or
Michif”. Five participants said they spoke or understood minimal to Michif �uently was a parent for half of the participants and a grand-
intermediate Cree, with Jessica stating her “reading and writing is parent for the other half of the participants.
more pro�cient than [her] actual oral”. Two participants spoke nei- It is worth noting that �ve participants also considered them-
ther Cree or any variant of Michif. Of the participants who claimed selves or non-�uent parents when asked who was the last genera-
some knowledge of Cree or any variant of Michif, �ve said they had tion in their family to speak the language. Children that were being
been or are currently learning Cree or Michif formally through a taught were included in that consideration, with Sarah stating that
class. Even for the participants who claimed no knowledge of Cree it has been “every generation for me so far because I’m going and
or Michif, all participants cited at least hearing or being spoken to then my son will go” and Kim stating “I think like me learning Cree
in Cree or Michif by family members. and like teaching it to my daughter”.
As alluded to in the statements of Sarah and Kim, there are also
instances of learning and teaching. At least half of the participants
1 “Michif is a mixed language historically derived from French and Cree” [22] mentioned teaching what they are learning to their children.
AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL Lothian, Akçayır, and Demmans Epp
3.4 Contributors to Language Loss resources that promote oral pro�ciency, stating that “we’re only
Participants cited a number of reasons for loss of ancestral language taught to write and translate”.
inheritance within their family or communities. For the participants From the perspective of adult language learning, a common
who were 50 years of age and above, they were more likely to cite the challenge cited by those who had taken formal classes in Cree or
societal climate of the 20th century in Western Canada. This group Michif was the di�culty of interacting with �uent speakers who
was also more likely to credit regular day school or residential learned the language as a child. The main di�culty appeared to
school attendance with the loss of their language. Richard said, be a di�erence in understanding of the language, along with the
“[Cree] was a dangerous language at one time” and “[my parents] words used to describe that understanding. Kim stated that “you
wouldn’t teach me any language because they had such a hard time can’t mention conjugating verbs because [my grandmother]’s like
at school”. Shirley, who is of the same generation, con�rmed “[my ‘I don’t know what the hell you’re talking about”’, and Jessica stated
parents] had such a hard time but my mother, when she went to that “it’s really di�cult when you’re trying to articulate a problem
school, they didn’t know the language”. Similarly, Ashley stated you’re having and their like ‘what are you talking about?”’.
that “I remember my grandma even saying like ‘it’s just too hard Another notable challenge was that of those being taught Cree
for you’, and I think that was their fear”. or Michif in a classroom setting; the dialect they were taught was
All of those aged 20-29 mentioned or alluded to being put in often a standard dialect and not the same as the community dialect
French Immersion school programs for the bene�t of better job spoken by friends and family members. Kim shared that “me and
prospects. Jessica stated that initially her parents’ goal was for her my grandma don’t necessarily speak the same dialect”, which can
to go into government. Sarah, Kim, and Tim all concurred that they further hinder the informal language-learning and practice oppor-
had similar experiences with their parents. For the participants who tunities that are inherent to communicating with other speakers.
reported growing up around their ancestral language, a common Speaking a di�erent dialect as a learner can also in�uence one’s
reason for not practicing the language was not being aware as a con�dence because there is a mismatch between what you know
child that their parents or grandparents were speaking a di�er- and what is spoken within your community. Consistent with this,
ent language. Amanda cited that “I didn’t know [my mother] was participants widely cited a lack of con�dence. This could take the
speaking Cree” and Ashley agreed by stating “when you’re raised shape of being too intimidated to attend conversational groups or
with it, you don’t realize . . . so to me it wasn’t another language. It feeling as though they were encroaching on a space if they were to
was, that was, my mother”. attend a conversational group or class hosted by an outside commu-
Five participants said another reason they did not inherit their nity. Along with this, �ve participants cited one or more instances
ancestral language was due to family members marrying non- of being laughed at or a fear of being laughed at. Sarah stated that
Indigenous people. The reason being, speci�cally, the desire not “I feel intimidated sometimes. . . I don’t wanna say nothing because
to alienate non-Indigenous spouses by speaking their ancestral what if I really mess it up”. There was also mention of “Indigenous
language. Sarah stated that “my grandmother on [my mother’s] humour” referencing the phenomenon of cultural teasing which
side married an Italian so she grew up learning Italian”, and Kim may impede learners’ willingness to take public risks with respect to
said “[my grandmother] was gonna teach me Cree when I was a their language learning. Jessica said “it’s de�nitely a common thing
kid but it just didn’t happen because [my grandfather] didn’t know among like Indigenous communities to like make fun, poke fun”
Cree so. . . you don’t wanna alienate them”. and Richard stated, referencing family and community members,
that “they used to laugh at me, the way I pronounced things”.
3.5 Challenges in Learning Ancestral
Languages 3.6 Experiences Using Non-Technology
When asked about the challenges they faced trying to learn Cree or Resources to Learn Ancestral Languages
Michif, the most cited challenge was a lack of exposure to the lan- Participants were asked to describe their experiences using non-
guage and lacking opportunities for practice. This problem existed technology resources to learn their ancestral language. The non-
both for those who had taken formal classes and those learning in technology resources cited are mostly visual resources such as
informal environments. For example, Sarah cited not having the picture books, labelled posters, and workbooks. Ashley cited that
class every day as a barrier. Four others speci�cally discussed how “Dr. Anne Anderson had the cassette tapes and the workbook, so
they were not able to continue practicing or using their language. we’d be doing that”. Kids’ books were described as a way to practice
As Richard said “if you don’t use it, you lose it”. that was not intimidating and also something that could be done
Related to this challenge is a lack of resources that left partici- with their kids. Kids’ books were also described as useful because
pants feeling as though they did not have the opportunity to further they were often accompanied by English translations. Sarah stated
their language learning by challenging themselves with indepen- that “[kids books have] short little words and it’s stu� that I can say
dent learning activities. One participant (Kim) said “not having the because obviously that Cree is the Cree that we’re learning here”.
opportunity to challenge myself with like new words” was an issue. There were also mentions of learning through family members.
Speci�cally mentioned by Jessica and Tim were a lack of resources Richard stated that “I was taught by my auntie more than anyone”.
that help you learn the structure of the language and promote the When asked what di�culties the participants faced when using
ability to have a spoken conversation. Tim stated that “there is a these resources, there was often the complaint that they were very
pretty distinct lack of resources besides just like de�nitional dic- time consuming. Ashley stated that “life just got in the way and
tionaries and things online”. As well, Sarah mentioned a lack of you didn’t have time and you didn’t have a set study time”.
Accommodating Indigenous People in Language Learning AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL
3.7 Experiences Using Technology Resources see their community dialect re�ected in the technology teaching
to Learn Ancestral Languages their ancestral language. Ashley stated “if we could bring the speak-
ers back with technology, the language spoken in [my community]
When asked to describe technology they have used previously to
in particular”.
help learn their ancestral language, participants often listed applica-
Many participants often spoke about wanting to be able to learn
tions as resources, with mobile dictionaries and vocabulary-based
the structure of the language so that they may talk with others.
applications dominating the list. Sarah said: “Cree Dictionary! On-
Amanda wanted “an app or something that makes it easy to learn
line!” as a likely reference to an app called Online Cree Dictionary.
conversation”. There were also mentions of desires for technol-
Jessica stated “I have two digital dictionaries on my phone. Be-
ogy that could translate language. Ashley and Sarah cited some
tween Cree and Michif I have like �ve apps. . . they have games on
form of earbud or hearing aid that could translate spoken language
them”, and Shirley cited “I have [an] app on my phone because
instantaneously.
[my relative] gave me her phone. She had all the Cree words on
Although some instances were implicit, like wishing technology
there and what they meant”. There were also mentions of tech-
could bring back �uent family members that have passed away,
nology resources that employed audio or visual resources such as
there was a general desire for technology that could mimic the
songs, radio, and recordings of conversation. Amanda mentioned
skills of a �uent speaker that could converse with the user and also
recording Michif songs sung in a class on her phone, as well as
provide feedback, essentially a Cree arti�cial intelligence. Amanda
listening to Cree on a radio station. Finally there were mentions
stated “I want a Cree speaking AI, hanging out with me all the time”.
of participants using social media groups for communal learning,
Similarly, Sarah cited a desire for “a 24/7 hologram tutor when you
such as on Facebook.
get stuck”. Kim suggested providing “a feedback opportunity. . . like
When asked what they did not like about the technology they
a chat bubble or something like ‘how the hell do you say this?’ like
have used to learn their ancestral language, participants often cited
that would be helpful”.
di�culties stemming from inconsistencies in spelling and dialects
across technologies. Participants who had taken formal classes on
their ancestral languages often cited that even when it was a familiar 4 DISCUSSION
dialect, the spelling was often non-standardized, which impeded
Our �ndings revealed that participants felt a sense of shame that
their learning. Kim stated that “It’s hard because not all of them are
existed either from personal experience or that was passed down
like the right dialect or they don’t have like the right spelling” and
predominantly from the last generation with respect to language
Jessica stated that “this isn’t the word that I want to copy and paste”
and culture. This feeling presents another challenge for learners of
in reference to dictionaries and the non-standard way in which
Indigenous languages because they need to motivate, manage, and
the entries are conjugated. There were also complaints regarding
monitor their learning [3], and their shame can interfere with their
the standard roman orthography (SRO) that Cree is written in. The
ability to perform these functions of self-directed learning. It is
standard spellings are not necessarily phonetically transparent,
common for previous and current generations to have been forced
which makes it di�cult for those without training to create or use
to learn English or French through attending either residential or
resources. Jessica commented that “[if you] learned it as a child,
public schools. This fact and learners’ current attitudes should be
you aren’t going to inherently know the SRO format but, like, for
taken into consideration when designing an Indigenous language-
us, who are learning the SRO format, it’s also like really confusing
learning system because its intended users may have been told that
sometimes”.
learning their language would not only be unhelpful to living a
successful life but may also hinder their success.
3.8 Expectations of Technologies for Ancestral One of the biggest challenges Indigenous people face when learn-
Language Learning ing their ancestral language is a lack of access to speakers to prac-
The �nal portion of the focus groups were a kind of co-design tice with. Even though people want to be able to communicate
with the participants. Participants were asked questions relating to with their own family and community members, most families
their wants and needs for learning their ancestral language with only have speakers who belong to the grandparents’ generation.
technology. Participants were positive or neutral about seeing their This gap in cultural and language knowledge within their fami-
culture integrated into technologies that taught their ancestral lies makes it di�cult to learn and develop a connection with their
language. The responses often centered around how they did not culture, community, and family because they believe that learning
feel there was a clear separation between language and culture. In their ancestral language builds this connection. This desire could be
relation to their expectations, Shirley stated “medicines would be accommodated by creating a language-learning system that helps
great. Drying the �sh and the way they did in the smoke house” users interact with a grandparent who speaks the language. A sys-
and Amanda stated “�ddling and jigging, somehow”. tem could, for example, teach a user to help their grandparent with
When asked how they would like to see technology accommo- a medical visit or teach a user how to ask for and understand cul-
date them in learning their ancestral language, a few participants tural knowledge. Akin to this is the expressed desire to learn the
said they would like technology that is engaging, that keeps their dialect that is speci�c to the user’s community. Achieving this goal
attention, and that provides ways to keep them interested in using would facilitate bridging communication gaps when speaking with
it again. Ashley said “something like that, gives you an alert every community and family members.
day and every day you got a new word so that was really helpful. As cited by most participants, there is an aspect of cultural teas-
Something like that would be nice”. They also expressed a desire to ing amongst First Nations and Métis groups in Western Canada.
AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL Lothian, Akçayır, and Demmans Epp
An e�ective system for teaching Indigenous ancestral languages ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
would be able to help a user not only gain con�dence but avoid This work was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering
pitfalls where embarrassment could arise. For example, in Plains Research Council of Canada.
Cree, there are many instances of similar sounding words that have
vastly di�erent and sometimes taboo meanings. A system that high-
lights when such a mistake could be made, or better yet identi�es REFERENCES
when the user makes that mistake, would accommodate this user [1] Ann Batchelder and Sherry Markel. 2000. An Initial Exploration of the Navajo
Nation’s Language and Culture Initiative. (03 2000).
need by helping them avoid potential embarrassment. Moreover, [2] Megan Bontogon, Antti Arppe, Lene Antonsen, Dorothy Thunder, and Jordan
such a system could help provide a comfortable environment to Lachler. 2018. Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning (ICALL) for
learners, thus facilitating learning [17][7]. nêhiyawêwin: An In-Depth User-Experience Evaluation. Canadian Modern Lan-
guage Review 74, 3 (2018), 337–362. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.4054
Many participants discussed using vocabulary-based apps to sup- [3] Gustavo GarcÃŋa Botero, Frederik Questier, and Chang Zhu. 2018. Self-directed
port their ongoing language-learning e�orts. However, language language learning in a mobile-assisted, out-of-class context: do students walk
the talk? Computer Assisted Language Learning 32, 1-2 (2018), 71–97. https:
learners are often not properly trained to know whether “the trans- //doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1485707
lation they have chosen �ts the context, or how to use the idioms [4] Barbara Burnaby. 1996. Aboriginal Language Maintenance, Development, and
in which the word appears, or how to make use of the grammat- Enhancement: A Review of Literature. (1996).
[5] James Crawford. 1996. Seven Hypotheses on Language Loss Causes and Cures.
ical information included with the de�nition” [14]. As discussed (1996).
previously with regards to Indigenous languages in Canada, most [6] John W. Creswell. 2007. Qualitative inquiry and research design choosing among
language learning resources are facilitative. Creating instructional �ve approaches. Sage.
[7] Carrie Demmans Epp. 2010. ProTutor: A pronunciation tutor that uses his-
resources that focus on aiding learners in using resources outside toric open learner models. Master’s thesis. University of Saskatchewan,
of a classroom setting would address this gap and would also com- Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. http://library.usask.ca/theses/available/
etd-07082010-120018/
plement current resources. [8] Carrie Demmans Epp. 2017. Migrants and Mobile Technology Use: Gaps in the
Participants expressed both an implicit and explicit desire for a Support Provided by Current Tools. Journal of Interactive Media in Education,
tool that helps create immersive language environments. As with Special Collection on migrants, education and technologies 2017, 1 (April 2017),
1–13. https://doi.org/10.5334/jime.432
all language learning, it is most e�ective with constant practice [9] Carrie Demmans Epp, Justin Djordjevic, Shimu Wu, Karyn Mo�att, and Ronald M.
and opportunities to learn. An optimal system was described as Baecker. 2012. Towards providing just-in-time vocabulary support for assistive
something that would e�ectively engage a user daily and that could and augmentative communication. In ACM International Conference on Intelligent
User Interfaces (IUI). ACM, Lisbon, Portugal, 33–36. https://doi.org/10.1145/
be used when and where the learner can take the time to learn so 2166966.2166973
that they can �t learning into their schedules and other life demands. [10] Carrie Demmans Epp and Gordon I. McCalla. 2011. ProTutor: Historic open
learner models for pronunciation tutoring. In Arti�cial Intelligence in Education
Tools that could aid in this endeavor could employ speech synthesis (AIED) (Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science), G. Biswas, S. Bull, J. Kay,
and speech recognition, to aid learners in practicing when they and A. Mitrovic (Eds.), Vol. 6738. Springer, Auckland, New Zealand, 441–443.
have no access to a speaker of the language. These tools could adapt https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21869-9_63
[11] M. M. Elaish, L. Shuib, N. Abdul Ghani, E. Yadegaridehkordi, and M. Alaa. 2017.
to a user by decreasing speech rates to the level of the learner, and Mobile Learning for English Language Acquisition: Taxonomy, Challenges, and
increasing over time in order to mimic the speed with which a Recommendations. IEEE Access 5 (2017), 19033–19047. https://doi.org/10.1109/
�uent person would speak [7]. ACCESS.2017.2749541
[12] Robert M. Emerson, Rachel I. Fretz, and Linda L. Shaw. 1995. Writing Ethno-
In terms of actual implementation of the above suggestion, as graphic Fieldnotes. (1995). https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226206851.001.
explored in recent work, this could be achieved with current CALL 0001
[13] Candace Galla. 2018. Technology Training and Praxis at the American Indian
or intelligent tutoring system technologies [2]. Given the right Language Development Institute: Computer Applications for Indigenous Lan-
resources, a system can promote ancestral language learning by guage Communities. Canadian Modern Language Review 74, 3 (2018), 388–433.
employing exercise templates that simulate interactions. These https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.4044
[14] Nina Garrett. 2009. Computer-Assisted Language Learning Trends and Issues Re-
templates should also integrate the acquisition of cultural knowl- visited: Integrating Innovation. The Modern Language Journal 93 (2009), 719–740.
edge since participants view their language and culture as being https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00969.x
inseparable. Most importantly, we should design language learning [15] Jane Gri�th. 2017. Of linguicide and resistance: children and English instruction
in nineteenth-century Indian boarding schools in Canada. Paedagogica Historica
technologies according to learner expectations and needs without 53, 6 (2017), 763–782. https://doi.org/10.1080/00309230.2017.1293700
compromising for the sake of �tting a technology [13]. [16] Stacye Hathorn. 1997. The Echota Cherokee Language Current Use and Opinions
about Revival. Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse.
[17] Agnes Kukulska-Hulme and Olga Viberg. 2017. Mobile collaborative language
learning: State of the art. British Journal of Educational Technology 49, 2 (2017),
207–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12580
[18] N Langton. 2015. Learning Kanji through online multimedia Manga: Student
perceptions regarding e�ectiveness and engagement. Journal CAJLE 16 (2015),
5 CONCLUSION 39–63.
This phenomenological investigation of the experiences of mem- [19] Mike Levy, Phil Hubbard, Glenn Stockwell, and Jozef Colpaert. 2015. Research
challenges in CALL. Computer Assisted Language Learning 28, 1 (2015), 1–
bers of the First Nations and Métis population of Western Canada 6. arXiv:https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.987035 https://doi.org/10.1080/
provided insight into their needs and expectations for learning their 09588221.2014.987035
[20] Joyce Nutta. 1998. Is Computer-Based Grammar Instruction as E�ective as
ancestral language through technology. Additional work will be Teacher-Directed Grammar Instruction for Teaching L2 Structures? CALICO
conducted to see how representative their experiences and atti- Journal 16 (01 1998).
tudes are to enable the development of appropriate technological [21] Jenny Preece, Helen Sharp, and Yvonne Rogers. 2011. Interaction design: beyond
human-computer interaction. Wiley Sons.
supports for sca�olding language and cultural revitalization, which [22] Nicole Rosen. 2003. Demonstrative Position in Michif. The Canadian Journal
is a lifelong-learning pursuit. of Linguistics / La revue canadienne de linguistique 48, 1 (2003), 39–69. https:
Accommodating Indigenous People in Language Learning AIED ’19, June 25–29, 2019, Chicago, IL
//doi.org/10.1353/cjl.2004.0011 [24] Yong Zhao. 2003. Recent Developments in Technology and Language Learning:
[23] Irina Wagner. 2017. New Technologies, Same Ideologies: Learning from Language A Literature Review and Meta-analysis. CALICO Journal 21 (01 2003).
Revitalization Online. (06 2017).