=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2474/shortpaper8
|storemode=property
|title=Weekend in Rome: a cognitive training exercise based on planning
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2474/shortpaper8.pdf
|volume=Vol-2474
|authors=Mauro Gaspari,Margherita Donnici
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/smc/GaspariD19
}}
==Weekend in Rome: a cognitive training exercise based on planning ==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2474/shortpaper8.pdf
Weekend in rome:
a cognitive training exercise based on planning
Mauro Gaspari and Margherita Donnici
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
University of Bologna
Bologna, Italy
mauro.gaspari@unibo.it
Abstract—We present the design of a novel cognitive rehabilitation problems [2]. Recently, the use of computerized tools for
exercise for the rehabilitation of executive functions to integrate into cognitive training in MS has been increasing, as opposed to the
the MS-Rehab system. In this exercise, the patient has to plan a two-
day vacation in Rome by reserving the trains and hotel, and planning traditional pen-and-paper approach (see for example [3], [4]).
the itinerary in the city while taking into consideration a number of The aim of this paper is to present the design of a
constraints, mirroring the kind of limitations one would have to plan novel cognitive rehabilitation exercise for the rehabilitation of
for in real life (such as opening hours and bus schedules). We exploit
automated planning to constantly generate new problems by
executive functions to integrate into MS-Rehab, an advanced
combining randomly the different tasks to be carried out and to give system able to integrate the various phases of the MS
hints to the users during rehabilitation. The exercise was carefully cognitive rehabilitation process [5].
designed to be as realistic as possible, thus having a high ecological Executive function is an umbrella term used to denote the
validity and to maximize the positive impact on the patients quality of
life. set of higher-order processes widely accepted as fundamental
Index Terms—multiple sclerosis, cognitive rehabilitation, executive components of human cognition; indeed, studies have shown
functions, planning, brain games that executive function deficits may lead to social and
behavioral problems. Planning is one of the main skills related
to executive functions, and a requirement of many cognitive
I. INTRODUCTION and motor tasks. Specifically, it may be defined as the ability
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common disease to organize cognitive behaviour in time and space and is
of the central nervous system, affecting about 2 1/2 million necessary in situations where a goal must be achieved through
people worldwide. Specifically, it is an inflammatory a series of intermediate steps each of which does not
demyelinating disease: this means it is caused by damage to necessarily lead directly towards that goal. The ability to plan
the myelin, a lipid-rich substance that surrounds the axon of is precisely the skill that the exercise we have developed,
some nerve cells, and allows a nerve to transmit its impulses named Weekend in Rome, aims to train. The scenario which is
rapidly. Thus, the loss of myelin in MS is accompanied by a simulated is different from any other present in rehabilitation
disruption in the ability of the nerves to conduct electrical software and had to be designed from scratch, involving a
impulses to and from the brain. This produces the various number of meetings with psychologists and rehabilitation
symptoms of MS, which vary widely and include deficits in experts to ensure its clinical validity. In this exercise, the
movement, sensation, visual and bodily functions. In patient has to plan a two-day vacation in the italian capital. In
particular, researchers indicate that 43 to 70% of patients are addition to making train and hotel reservations, he is also given
cognitively impaired [1]. Cognitive dysfunction could appear in a list of tasks (such as locations to visit or events to attend) he
the earliest stages of the disease as the first symptoms of MS. must accomplish, navigating all the difficulties which are
The cognitive domains impaired in MS seem to have an inter- typical of planning a trip in real life (reservations, bus
patient variability, but a characteristic pattern may be defined: schedules, opening hours...). Indeed, the exercise was
memory, information processing efficiency, executive carefully designed to be as realistic as possible, thus having a
functioning, attention, processing speed, are the most high ecological validity and to maximize the positive impact on
commonly compromised functions. Cognitive rehabilitation the patients quality of life. The exercise was built using
therapy, exercise, and education programs are promising automated planning, a branch of artificial intelligence related
psychosocial interventions to improve coping and lessen to decision theory, which involves devising a plan, described as
cognitive symptoms. Specifically, cognitive rehabilitation a sequence of actions, in order to achieve a given goal. Like all
therapy is a term used to describe treatments that address the other exercises of the MS-Rehab system, Weekend in
these cognitive Rome incorporates different auto-adaptive levels of difficulty.
SAT19: 1st Workshop on Socio-Affective Technologies: an interdisciplinary
II. EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND AUTOMATED PLANNING
approach, October 7, 2019, Bari, Italy
Copyright © 2019 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
The term executive function covers a wide range of with people appropriately may be compromised. Without
concepts: most researchers, in fact, agree that it is an treatment, this may have devastating long-term effects on the
exceptionally broad term, and there is little consensus on a ability to succeed at home, work or school.
precise definition. Nevertheless, it is indisputable that the Cognitive rehabilitation therapy (CRT) is a broad term used
term refers to abilities which are critical for functioning in to describe treatments that address these cognitive problems.
everyday life: for example, executive functions help you The Institute of Medicines 2011 [10] report defines CRT as
manage life tasks such as planning a trip, your day, a research cognitive rehabilitation attempts to enhance functioning and
project or even something as basic as preparing a meal. independence in patients with cognitive impairments as a
Metaphorically speaking, executive functions could be result of brain damage or disease.
considered the brains chief executive officer, the conductor of We give a few example of cognitive exercises designed to
all cognitive skills. In fact, some abilities encompassed in test, restore or strengthen underlying cognitive functions, in
executive functioning involve other cognitive domains as well, particular planning, with a high ecological validity. Exercises
such as memory and attention. These abilities include the with a high ecological validity are exercises which train the
maintenance and manipulation of information, temporal patient on typical tasks required in day-to-day life, thus giving
organization, set shifting, self-monitoring, concept formation, rehabilitation a positive impact on the patients quality of life.
verbal fluency, inhibition, motivation, organization, and • Zoo Map: In 1996, Wilson, Alderman, Burgess, Emslie,
planning. Widely accepted as fundamental components of and Evans developed the Behavioral Assessment of the
human cognition, studies have shown that executive function Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS), an ecologically valid test
deficits may lead to social and behavioral problems, as well as battery designed specifically for the assessment of
academic underachievement [6]: people who have difficulty planning and organizational capacity for situations one
inhibiting themselves, remembering things, planning, problem could encounter in everyday life. Up until then,
solving, and being flexible will present major deficiencies in conventional executive function tests lacked ecological
social, academic, and vocational functioning. Executive validity, resulting in a discrepancy between test
functions gradually develop and change across the lifespan of performance and functioning in everyday life [11]. The
an individual and can be improved at any time over the course entire battery contains six subtests, including the Zoo
of a persons life [7]. Here we concentrate on planning Map Test, where the participants are instructed to plan
capabilities. Specifically, planning may be defined as the ability their route through a map of the zoo, visiting a selection
to organize cognitive behaviour in time and space and is of locations while actively disregarding others and
necessary in situations where a goal must be achieved through obeying certain rules: for example, the order of the
a series of intermediate steps, each of which does not locations to visit, or crossing certain paths only once. This
necessarily lead directly towards the specified goal [8]. Simply test is particularly useful to assess the specific executive
put, planning is the ability to think about the future and deficit in order to carry out the appropriate rehabilitation
mentally anticipate the right way to carry-out a task: this therapy.
means to choose the necessary actions to reach a specific goal, • Plan-A-Day: Another similar exercise is Plan-A-Day [12],
decide the right order, assign each task to the proper cognitive [13], proposed by Funke & Kruger in 1995. In this
resources, and establish a plan of action. In order to plan exercise, the patient has to schedule a list of tasks to
efficiently, one needs the necessary information and the complete during the day (for example, picking up his
ability to mentally establish an adequate synthesis of all the daughter from the swimming pool or buying groceries)
data. while considering various constraints about when,
where, and for what duration the activities have to be
A. Rehabilitation of Planning Abilities
carried out.
The ability to plan depends on elements like brain plasticity
or neuroplasticity, myelinization, or the ability to establish new B. Automated Planning
paths and synaptic connections. An absence or deficiency in Planning is one of the executive functions of the brain, and
this ability is a typical symptom of frontal lobe disorders, thus a fundamental property of intelligent behavior. It involves
especially disorders that affect the prefrontal dorsolateral the explicit deliberation process that chooses and organizes
area. Any task that requires planning, organization, actions by anticipating their outcomes, aiming at achieving
memorization, time management, and flexible thinking will be some pre-stated objectives. Automated planning is the
particularly challenging for subjects who have deficient computational study of this deliberation process. In particular,
planning abilities. Having significant difficulties in carrying out plans are needed in many different areas of human endeavor
these kind of tasks is known as dysexecutive syndrome (DES) and often it is useful, if not essential, to create these plans
[9]. In everyday life, this means that a persons ability to care auto- matically. Automated planning technology now plays a
for himself, complete tasks, keep appointments and interact significant role in a variety of applications, ranging from
Copyright © 2019 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
controlling space vehicles (such as the Mars Rover), managing visit the monuments, taking into account the duration of the
fire extinctions or controlling underwater vehicles. Specifically, visits and the appointments. Here, the setting was changed
given a description of the possible initial states of the world, a from Florence to Rome, and the time frame was increased
description of the desired goals, and a description of a set of from a single day to a weekend (two days). This allowed us to
possible actions, the planning problem is to synthesize a plan make the exercise even more realistic, thus increasing its
that, when applied to an initial state, is guaranteed to bring us ecological value, by adding the train and hotel reservations to
to a goal state which contains all the desired goals. As depicted the tasks the patient must accomplish in order to plan the
in Figure 1 the main elements of a planning problem are vacation: the patient has to choose the train trip which allows
characterized by the following components: him to arrive at the right time and the hotel located in the right
• State-transition system: a formal representation of the place in order to complete all the tasks.
real-world system we want to build plans for; At first, a few locations in Rome were selected among the
most famous tourist attractions, chosen between two
categories: locations which could be visited, and locations
where
Fig. 1. An Automated Planning System.
Fig. 2. Weekend in Rome map.
• Controller performs actions that change the state of the
system;
• Planner: produces the plans which drive the controller.
an event could occur (such as a concert). The chosen locations
In 1998, in an attempt to standardize Artificial Intelligence were: the Trevi fountain, Saint Peters Basilica, the Colosseum,
planning languages, Drew McDermott and his colleagues the Pantheon, the Auditorium, the Ara Pacis, the Olympic
proposed the Planning Domain Definition Language (PDDL) Stadium and the Trastevere neighbourhood. The intent was to
[14], inspired by STRIPS (STanford Research Institute Problem have some variety in the type of goals, which could range from
Solver) and Adl (Action Description Language). In the next the classic visiting a tourist attraction (such as the Trevi
section, we will show how PDDL describes the key elements of fountain), to attending a planned public event (such as a
Weekend in Rome. concert at the Auditorium or a football match at the Olympic
III. THE DESIGN OF WEEKEND IN ROME Stadium) or a social occasion (such as having lunch with your
friends in Trastevere). To increase the realistic aspect all the
The first step of the design phase of the exercise was laying
more, the patient is given two options for moving around the
the groundwork and devising the basic concepts of the
city: by foot, or by bus. In the latter case, bus timetables have
exercise. This was followed by a precise analysis of the domain
to be taken into consideration as well. At this point, a
and actions in the exercise, and the formalization in PDDL.
semirealistic map (see Figure 2) with the chosen locations, the
The initial objective was to formulate how the basic
two train stations (Termini and Tiburtina), four hotels and
structure of the exercise. Weekend in Rome was inspired by
possible bus routes was sketched in order to aid the modeling.
one paper-based exercise for executive functions
The next step was to choose the possible goals or tasks a
rehabilitation used at the Bellaria Hospital in Bologna, Map of
patient had to accomplish. The immediate goals which could
Florence: in this exercise, the patient is given a stylized map of
be defined were the train and hotel reservations. The latter
Florence and a list of monuments or places to visit (for
imply that the patient has to sleep at the reserved hotel. To
example, the Uffizi Gallery or the Piazza del Duomo), as well as
give a minimum of structure, it was decided to give a precise
some fixed-time appointments (for example, meet your
time at which the patient must go to sleep. Two additional
friends for lunch at 1pm), and a starting time and location. The
tasks related to the hotel choice were defined to make the
patient then has to plan the visit, choosing in which order to
Copyright © 2019 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
exercise more authentic: having breakfast at the hotel (taking • Book hotel: action to choose the hotel to book, among
into account breakfast hours), and exercising (doing the 4 available.
gymnastics) before breakfast. In regards to the tasks • Wait: action to skip ahead in time of one hour.
pertaining to tourist activities, three main types were outlined: • Travel: action to move around on the map. Two kind of
Simple sightseeing tasks; Activity tasks; Timed activity tasks. travel actions were implemented; travel by foot and
From the very beginning the integration of automated travel by bus. Both of the actions have a duration of one
planning for the exercises implementation was recognized as hour; the advantage of traveling by bus was built into the
an essential requirement. One could argue that different map layout (i.e. some bus routes act as a shortcut
approaches would have been possible: for example, given that between two places where two or more travel by foot
the exercise basically consists in reaching a series of goals actions would be needed to get from one to the other).
while satisfying certain constraints, one method which could • Sleep: action to go to sleep; two kind of sleep actions
come to mind is to solve the problem by modeling it as a were implemented: a short sleep with the duration of
constraint satisfaction problem (CSP). What makes automated four hours, and a long sleep with the duration of eight
planning a better solution is that while a CSP solver does find hours. These actions can only be executed at the booked
a solution in which all constraints are satisfied, a planner hotel and at the determined sleep time, fixed by a specific
outputs the sequence of actions which can bring you to the predicate.
solution, which is exactly what the pa- tient is required to do • Have breakfast: action (with the duration of one hour) to
in order to train his executive functions. Thus, with automated be done at the hotel after sleeping, during the breakfast
planning, we can compare the planners solution to the hours of the hotel.
patients to have a • Do activity: this action represents the different activities
that can be done in the different locations (visit the
performance metric. Moreover, the use of automated
exhibition, do the guided tour, watch the football
planning also allowed the implementation of a hint button
match...).
(suggesting the next action to execute) and a verify button
(giving the patient feedback on whether he is on the right track
or not) as features of the exercise.
A. PDDL Modelling and Integration
Once the specification of the exercise was well defined, the
next phase was modeling it in PDDL. At first, the domain was
formalized, extrapolating the different possible actions and
predicates. The first step was to define the types of objects,
that is the entities involved: in this case, two types were
defined: time and place.
Time has to be modeled explicitly because the solver we
used (the PDDL4J library [14]) does not support some features
of PDDL 2.1 that would have helped in modeling time, namely Fig. 3. Travel by bus action.
numeric fluents (for modeling non-binary resources) or
durative actions (which could have variable, non- discrete
length, conditions and effects). The basic idea of our For simplicity, it was determined that all the activities
representation of time is that each atomic time unit is have the duration of two hours.
represented by a time object. In the case of Weekend in Rome, • Exercise: this action has the duration of one hour, and
48 time objects were defined, corresponding to the 48 hours must be done before breakfast.
of the two-day weekend. A chronological order is established During the definition of the actions, additional predicates to
using predicates, and the passage of time is modeled by express accurately the preconditions and effects emerged as
marking these objects as in the past, present or future. well. Train predicates are used to define the possible outward,
Modeling the domain also required a preliminary analysis to return or round-trip journeys that are available for booking.
extrapolate the possible atomic actions in the different states. Map predicates are used to model the underlying map of
This resulted in the following list of actions: Rome and its mechanics, such as foot-path and bus-path to
• Book train: the patient will use this action to choose specify which locations are accessible with which kind of
which trains to book. There are two possible situations: transport, opening-hours to define the opening hours of the
the booking of a single journey, or the booking of a round- different locations, can-sleep and train-station to denote
trip. whether a location is a hotel or a train station, breakfast-hours
Copyright © 2019 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
to define the hours during which breakfast is available at the after every action of the patient: if the new problem has a
hotel, and activity-available to mark the locations where an solution, the patient may continue, otherwise the exercise
activity is available. Predicates to keep track of goals are used ends. This approach was not adopted for Weekend in Rome as
to keep track of the actions that have already been done, in there was a risk of having long loading times while the planner
order to identify when all the goals have been satisfied. Some searched for a solution, making the exercise slow and
examples are slept, visited, done-activity, done-activity-timed bothersome. Another difference is that in the case of Plan-
and doneexercise. ADay, a new map is generated for each exercise; in Weekend
An example of action formalized using PDDL is presented in in Rome, there are 3 static maps (corresponding to the 3
Figure 3. The action Travel by Bus specifies that you can travel difficulty levels). The complete map presented in Figure 2 is
by bus from a location ?src at the hour ?departuretime and to associated to the high level, the easy and medium level maps
a location ?dst arriving at the hour ?arrival-time. The are obtained from this map removing some of the locations
preconditions dictate that: the patient has to have finished the and are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5. The logic for moving
reservations; the patient has to be in the start location at the around on the map was also changed from drag & drop to
departure time; the arrival time must be hour immediately clicking, as the first proved to be not easy to use for patients
following the departure time; there must be a bus path on tablet.
between the two locations; the arrival time must be in the ZooSafari Visit was the second planning exercise
future; there must be a bus scheduled on that route at the implemented for MS-Rehab, inspired by the Zoo Map test. In
departure time The effect equation says that, once the action this exercise, the patient has to plan his route through a map
is applied, you are at the destination at the arrival time, are no of the zoo, visiting a selection of locations while actively
longer at the source location at the departure time, the disregarding others and obeying certain rules: for example, the
departure time and the arrival time are in the past (i.e. no order of the locations to visit, or crossing certain paths only
longer in the future), and the destination is marked as visited. once. In this case the approach used in Plan-A-Day (calling the
Subsequently, a common structure for all the problem planner after each action of the patient) was also avoided.
instances was identified. Specifically, the common basis However, Weekend in Rome offers two additional features to
consisted in: exploit the planner, the Verify feature and the Hint feature: the
• Objects: the objects involved are the same for each Verify feature (see Figure 6) will give the patient an input on
problem: the locations and the 48 hours whether the problem is still solvable or not. In the latter case,
• Initial state: most of the initial state description is it will inform the patient of which goal is unsolvable and give
common to all instances, namely the predicates to model him the options to either continue in order to satisfy the other
the map and to model time. goals, or end the exercise. The Hint button instead will give
IV. IMPROVEMENT OF PLANNING BASED EXERCISES
Weekend in Rome adopts original solutions concerning the
use of automatic planning in exercises for the rehabilitation of
executive functions. We present these solutions comparing
Weekend in Rome with other similar exercises based on
planning, namely two currently available planning exercises in
the MS-Rehab system (Plan-A-Day and ZooSafari visit), and the
Plan a Holiday exercise of the RehaCom cognitive training
software.
The MS-Rehab version of Plan-A-Day is based on the
penand-paper version by Funke & Kruger. In this exercise, the
patient has to schedule a list of tasks to complete during the Fig. 4. Weekend in Rome Map: easy level.
day (for example, picking up his daughter from the swimming
pool or buying groceries) while considering various constraints
about when, where, and for what duration the activities have
to be carried out. Conceptually, the exercise is similar to
Weekend In Rome: the patient has to move around on a map
and execute given tasks. However, in Weekend in Rome, there
is the additional difficulty of having to plan the train and hotel
reservations beforehand. In regards to the implementation,
one main difference is that in Plan-A-Day, the planner is called
Copyright © 2019 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
independent with activities of daily living, and might respond
better to their rehabilitation. The objective of this work was
the design and implementation of a novel exercise for the
rehabilitation of executive functions and its subsequent
integration in the the MS-Rehab system. In this exercise, the
patient has to plan a two-day vacation in Rome by reserving
the trains and hotel, and planning the itinerary in the city while
taking into consideration a number of constraints, mirroring
the kind of limitations one would have to plan for in real life
(such as opening hours and bus schedules). This leads to the
first key aspect of the exercise: its high ecological value.
Indeed, while there are quite a few computerized cognitive
rehabilitation exercises which involve planning a day into the
Fig. 5. Weekend in Rome Map: medium level.
city, none of them take place in a two-day span nor include the
train and hotel reservations. A second important aspect is the
generation of constantly new problems by combining
randomly the different tasks to be carried out. Careful
attention was also given to the user interface, in effort to make
it not only easy to navigate and intuitive for the patient, but
also pleasurable and fun in order to encourage the patient to
carry out the exercise even at home. Last but not least, a novel
feature which is not present in the other two planning
exercises of the MS-Rehab system was implemented: the Hint
feature, in which the patient is suggested the next action to
execute in order to carry out all the given tasks. The varying
difficulty levels were carefully defined in collaboration with a
psychologist specialized in cognitive rehabilitation, which also
Fig. 6. Verify Button Result. deemed the exercise suitable for its planned purposes, that is
the rehabilitation of executive functions.
A possible extension of the exercise would be to add a
the patient a hint on which action to perform next. For both of budget constraint, implemented through numeric fluents in
these features, it is necessary to keep track of all the user PDDL (which are not currently supported by the PDDL4J
actions in order to update the problem state. planner). The exercise could also be enriched with ulterior
A similar planning based exercise is available in the activities to be carried out as tasks, such as a boat ride on the
RehaCom therapy system in the Plan a Vacation module, under Tiber, or a stroll in the Villa Borghese park. Maps representing
the name of Plan a HoliDay [15]. Despite the name, the other cities, such as Florence or New York, could be designed
exercise resembles more Plan-A-Day rather than Weekend in for variety.
Rome: the patients ability to organize and plan a day is trained, Another possible, but more challenging extension, would be
in a realistic manner (particular tasks have to be dealt with at to implement a 3D version of the exercise, in which the patient
specific places and must be completed within a given point in has to navigate through the streets of the city in firstperson
time). Thus, the exercise does not included train or hotel view, eventually exploiting Virtual Reality technologies.
reservations, and plans are made only for one day - unlike Indeed, VR offers the potential to develop human testing and
Weekend in Rome. However, Plan a HoliDay also provides an training environments that allow for the precise control of
almost endless number of different tasks since new complex stimulus presentations in which human cognitive and
combinations of tasks can be generated randomly. functional performance can be accurately assessed and
rehabilitated. Although further studies are needed, some 3D
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
applications are effective in treating cognitive deficits in
The rehabilitation of executive functions is essential for people with neurological diagnoses [16], [17].
improving the quality of life of patients affected by multiple
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