Introduction

The computational methods have importantly enriched the studies of literary history in the last two decades. However, it can also be stated that the digital humanities depend in large part on literary studies [19]. Since 1980s, the feminist theory and gender studies have played an important role in the analysis of literary texts. Moreover, the feminist literary history has made visible a large number of forgotten women authors through digitalization projects, such as The Orlando Project (https://www.artsrn.ualberta.ca/orlando/), The Women Writers Project (https://www.wwp.northeastern.edu/) and the Virtual Research Enviroment NEWW Women Writers in History (http://resources. huygens.knaw.nl/womenwriters/), which is focusing not only on collection of women's writings but especially on the collection of reception data. This illustrates the fruitful connection between feminist literary history and digital humanities. Projects that connect computational methods and feminist approaches with literary texts, enable better understanding of women's roles, especially in the literary life of earlier periods. Through the use of approaches such as distant reading, developed by F. Moretti [15] in the Stanford Literary Lab, and by novel data visualization and data analysis methods applied to large textual corpora, new light can be shed on the work of forgotten or neglected women writers.

The writings of women have always been an integral part of the literary field although they encountered many obstacles caused by the male dominance [2]. Feminist digital literary studies have impacted the field of digital humanities, but regrettably also here, their contributions have not always been recognised and acknowledged [20]. Recent studies [17,4] prove how feminist approaches within digital humanities enable new findings and more complex understanding of the literary history. Also in our work, we investigate a female author, and position our work in the field of digital humanities in combination with with the feminist literary history and gender studies. We focus on the work of Zofka Kveder who was one of the most important female writers in the multicultural space of Habsburg Empire. Zofka Kveder's work has been previously transformed to digitalized form and identified as a good source for digital humanities investigations [12], but the presented work is the first actual study analysing the work with digital humanities and natural language processing methods.

In this paper, we test how natural language processing methods can facilitate the investigation of a literary text, in particular how using word embeddings can reveal interesting relations between concepts in the work of Zofka Kveder. Word embeddings are vector representations of words, where each word is assigned a real-valued vector in a vector space. Due to the distributional hypothesis (see Zellig Harris [7]), which states that words used in similar context will have similar meanings, embeddings can capture a certain degree of semantics by translating semantic relations in text into vector space relations. Word embeddings have been previously applied to literary text corpora. For example, Grayson et al. [6] use them to compare the characters in 19th-century fiction by the authors Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, and Arthur Conan Doyle, while Wohlgenannt et al. [21] test several word embeddings methods on the task of extracting a social network for literary texts, specifically on the series of fantasy novels. In our experiments, we train FastText embeddings [1] on the corpus of works of Zofka Kveder and for selected concepts identify twenty nearest semantic neighbours according to the cosine similarity between the embedding vectors. These are then interpreted from a literary perspective, showing the potential of simple computational approaches to literary investigation, as well as some deficiencies of automated methods.

Corpus of Zofka Kveder

Zofka Kveder (1878Kveder ( -1926) ) was a multilingual and multicultural author who lived in three Central European capitals: Ljubljana, Prague and Zagreb and wrote in three languages: Slovenian, Croatian and German. Many of her works were published in newspapers and literary magazines in the Central and South-Eastern Europe in Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Serbian, Polish and Serbian language. She was also a cultural mediator and an ardent feminist. In most of her stories, a female character in various roles is in the foreground. She also touched on the concept of free love, which was an important issue at the time, and acknowledged the problems of forced marriages, women's urges, illegitimate motherhood, abortion, suicide, prostitution, early death at childbirth and many other themes from the lives of women. As many authors from the late 19th and early 20th century, Zofka Kveder depicted the incompatibility of women's emancipation with marriage and motherhood, and criticized the double moral of the middleclass society, which could not accept an unmarried woman to enjoy sex without feelings of guilt [14].

She also looked for concrete possibilities that would allow women to overcome their position as the Other, to change their relationship with their own bodies and to overcome feelings of guilt and uselessness, which, as she demonstrated, could lead to the disintegration of identity or even death. Having opted for stylistic pluralism, Kveder shaped her narrative using naturalist-realistic stylistic devices, while also feeling an affinity for stylistic procedures typical of New Romanticism. Her works have been translated to many European languages, including Bulgarian, English, German, Polish, Czech.

The corpus in our study contains all Kveder's Slovenian writings: two novels, two plays, two one-act plays, some dramatic scenes, a large number of short stories and tales and articles (literary reviews, feminist writings, etc.). The corpus was published in five volumes of the Collected works of Zofka Kveder -as printed and electronic books edited by K. Mihurko Poniž [10,9]. In total, the corpus contains 1,217,517 tokens.

Selected concepts

For our analysis, we have selected 12 concepts (words):

ženska [woman], žena [wife/woman], moški [man], mož [husband/man], moderen [modern], duša [soul], pijanec [drunkard], ljubezen [love], otrok [child], emancipiran [emancipated], po- tovati [to travel], mati [mother].

The concepts have been selected according to the prevailing topics in Kveder's works. The selection criterion was also Kveder's relationship to the concepts of the so-called Wiener Moderne (Viennese modern age). In the last decade of the 19th century and in the first decade of the 20th century in the majority of the European literatures different stylistic formations had been developed that are associated under the umbrella-term of the literary modernity (cf. Le Rider [11]). We wanted to find out how Kveder positioned herself and her literary figures towards the concept of "modern". The authors of the Viennese modern age revisioned the concepts of gender roles, therefore the concepts of woman, man and love were chosen. The femaleness was in the majority of writings of the modern age still connected with the motherhood, therefore we were interested how Kveder connected different topics around this thematic field and consequently if we can conclude that she represented the conservative or progressive views on this problem (concepts of mother and child). The writers who belonged to the literary modernism (especially to the literary currents of symbolism and new romanticism) developed new views on the relationship between body and internal world -in Slovenian language the word soul was used at that time for the individual's psyche. In the feminist but also in the literary writings Kveder reflected upon women's emancipation (therefore we selected the concept of emancipation), which was also one of the central topics of the modern age. Since in the late 19th and early 20th century women traveled and explored new worlds more often than ever before, we were also interested, how the concepts of travel and migrations were coded in Kveder's texts (concept of travel). The concept of the drunkard was chosen because of Kveder's strong (autobiographical) interest in the topic of alcoholism.

Method

Even if usually word embeddings are trained on very large corpora, there are several studies that show that embeddings can also lead to useful results on smaller text collections. For example, a recent study by Diaz et al. [5] suggests that leveraging embeddings trained on a large general corpus for modelling semantic relations on a specialized corpus is problematic due to strong language use variation. The study shows that embeddings trained only on a small topic specific corpus outperform non-topic specific general embeddings trained on very large general corpora for a somewhat specific task of query expansion in specialized text. Similar, FastText embeddings trained on small domain corpora were used in Pollak et al. [18]. Since we are also dealing with a specialized historical text written by a single author known for its distinct writing style, we follow this line of research and train embeddings only on the author's text.

To counteract the negative affects of a small training corpus, we use Fast-Text embeddings [1] as they are capable of capturing subword information and modeling of affixes and suffixes by representing a word as an average of its character n-grams of specific length. This allows the model to compensate for the lack of available semantic information due to small corpus size by leveraging also morphological similarity, which in many cases translates to semantic relatedness. Also, since Slovenian is a morphologically rich language, FastText embeddings are trained on a lemmatized corpus of Zofka Kveder's texts. Lemmatization was employed in order to prevent the scenario in which the majority of nearest semantic neighbours we want to obtain for each seed concept would be different forms of the input concept. Text was lemmatized using Lemmagen lemmatizer (Juršič et al., 2010). After that, for each of the chosen concepts we obtain 20 nearest semantic neighbours according to the cosine similarity between the embedding vectors. The selected sets are then used for literary investigation, presented in next section. In Table 1 we present the results of experiments and in Table 2 the English translations. In this section, we interpret selected concepts and relations from the perspective of literary studies, and reveal some limitations of the method. The concept woman (see table rows 1 and 2) is placed in a relationship with man (man, husband, groom) and with Catholicism: Pharisee, cleric, clericalism. Words related to writer's family situation (family, widow, son) also appear. In connection with the concept woman, there is also the word milliner, which indicates a common women's profession in the modern age. The connection with the word European is also interesting because literary studies have not discussed it yet.

In the concept of emancipated, no word appears in direct connection with a woman. The concept of mother appears in connection with daughter, which is expected, given the frequent topic of the mother-daughter relationship in Kveder's writings. The concept mother connects with words that express emotions associated with suffering: to bury, to grieve, to despair. The literary studies on the topic of motherhood in Kveder's work connected Kveder's work with negative representations of motherhood [13].

A man is positioned in the relationship to a woman (wife, marriage) and in his family role (son, grandson, father, parent, kinship). Interesting is the connection with the word gender, which does not occur in resulting words for the the seed concept woman. The concept love is associated with fidelity/loyalty and emotions. Surprisingly, it does not connect with the body, although this was discussed as a frequent topic in Kveder's oeuvre in the field of literary and gender studies [8].

The concept of modern is associated with words such as rebellious, effective, original but also pathetic, imposing, ascetic and fascinating, which are the expected connections according to previous research of Kveder's writings. The connection with the Oriental is interesting and calls for further research. The relation with the concept soul (longing, heart, compassion) are unsurprising since this concept was often discussed in the modern age. However, the connection with the word atom is interesting and unexpected.

Subword information, which influences the similarity in FastText embeddings, generally improves the semantic modelling in morphologically rich languages and small corpora, as it helps with finding semantically similar concepts with similar morphological structure. For example, similar lexemes in žena [wife], ženin [groom], ženitev [marriage] are reflecting also semantic similarity of words. On the other hand, the results indicate that this feature can also lead to strong correlations between semantically (mainly) unrelated words containing many common characters (e.g., strong correlation between ženska (woman in Slovenian) and Ženeva (Slovenian name for the city in Switzerland)). An interesting example is also ljubezen [love], where we can find many etymologically related words with common lexemes, which can be easily interpreted as semantically related, such as samoljuben [self-centred], samoljubje [self-centeredness], preljubezniv [kindest], but on the other hand we have words with similar subword information that are not closely semantically related (e.g. poljuben [arbitrary]).

Another aspect related to string similarity is related to word types. We can notice that the part-of-speech (POS) of seed words and returned words is to a large extent preserved. In our case the majority of seed words are nouns, and corresponding returned embeddings return nearly only nouns, while when adjectives or verbs were selected as seeds, the related words also belong mainly to the respective POS categories. This is due to stronger association between words with the same characteristic word type affixes. For example, the seed adjective emancipiran has returned the set of semantically closest words talentiran, improviziran, absolviran, . . . , while the verb potovati is associated to verbs pestovati, službovati, etc. However, when a noun has a typical verb ending (e.g. mati ), there are many verbs in the returned list. Even if in general grouping of words in relation to their POS can be interpreted as a feature, we found that in our study (on a small corpus) this could be a source of confusion and that nouns provided more interesting and reliable results than verbs and adjectives. Nouns would also be our first choice for selection of seed words for future analysis of literary works in Slovenian language with FastText embeddings. Another thing that made the interpretation of results harder are mistakes in the lemmatization. For example, first name Joško was lemmatized into joške (Slovenian for boobs), showing that named entities should be marked or better handled in lemmatization.

Conclusion and future work

In this paper, we investigate how natural language processing methods can facilitate the investigation of literary work. We have trained FastText embeddings on the corpus of the text of Zofka Kveder who was a principal Slovenian modernist, multilingual and multicultural author and a feminist. We have selected twelve concepts (words), according to the prevailing topics in Kveder's works and in relationship to the concepts of the so-called Wiener Moderne (Viennese modern age). For these words, we have computed twenty nearest semantic neighbours according to the cosine similarity between the embedding vectors. These were then interpreted from a literary perspective, showing the potential of simple computational approaches to literary investigation. From the point of view of the research of Zofka Kveder's work, the results of our research confirm the findings of literary history studies, and also open new research directions (e.g. the relation between woman and European, and modern and Oriental), which means that computer analysis provides interesting results that can be a useful approach in literary studies. In future work, we plan to enlarge the set of concepts, investigate how to remove noise by using improved lemmatization, testing the results without lemmatization and recognizing named entities. In addition to observing similarities between concepts, word embeddings allow for investigating analogies, which could be very interesting when applied to literary texts. Further, we plan to use the methods on larger literary corpora, which would allow for embeddings-based analysis of differences between authors, authors' gender (e.g. male vs. female authors in the same period) and diachronic based studies, which would allow to analyse how certain concepts evolved during time. Last but not least, we will analyse different word embeddings methods (w2v, GloVe,...) to analyse strengths and weaknesses of different methods, and compare the results to statistical word association measures, such as PMI [3] and PPMI [16].