=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2699/paper16
|storemode=property
|title=Information Retrieval from Hypermedia, with a Navigable Overview, at the End of Primary School
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2699/paper16.pdf
|volume=Vol-2699
|authors=Sandrine Moschetti-Rome,Franck Amadieu,Cécile van de Leemput
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/cikm/Moschetti-RomeA20
}}
==Information Retrieval from Hypermedia, with a Navigable Overview, at the End of Primary School==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2699/paper16.pdf
Information retrieval from hypermedia, with a navigable
overview, at the end of primary school
Sandrine Moschetti- Romea,, Franck Amadieua and Cécile van de Leemputb
a
Laboratory CLLE (CNRS, UT2J), University of Toulouse, 5 Allée Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse, France
b
Faculty of Psychological Sciences and Education, Department of Work and Consumer Psychology (PsyTC),
Solbosch Campus - CP 122, Avenue F.D. Roosevelt, 50 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Abstract
At the end of primary school, pupils begin to learn how to manage information web search.
This activity is complex for young learners. Thus, they carry out their first learning and use in
a "protected hypertext environment". Despite this material adaptation, cognitive processes
remain complex and most of pupils need navigation aid. This study aimed to examine how a
navigable overview of the structure of the hypermedia could support navigation and promote
better performance in answering questions from non-linear hypermedia, considering children’
personal differences. We hypothesized that both information retrieval skills in a non-linear
printed document and motivational aspects (self- efficacy about these skills) would predict
navigational behaviour and performance. Moreover, we expected that a navigable overview
would help when personal resources are low. A sample of pupils schooled in priority education
was examined. Our hypotheses were partially confirmed. Pedagogical applications were
discussed.
Keywords 1
Information retrieval, hypermedia, skills and self-efficacy, navigable overview, children
1. Introduction comprehension: for a review, see Amadieu and
Salmeron [4]. In addition, children learn to
manage four different tasks: 1. retrieve and
At the end of primary school (4th and 5th
extract factual information; 2. make simple
grades), in Science, History and Geography,
inference; 3. interpret and integrate information
children are made aware of web research
with their own knowledge (locate and relate
guided by specific questions2. They work in a
two or three information situated in different
“protected” digital learning environment [1]:
nodes); 4. review and evaluate content. In the
different physical structures of hypermedia, in
present study, we focused on non-linear
which content and navigation functionalities
hypermedia where children navigated
are limited by the designer. There are two types
exclusively by embedded links to perform the
of navigation functionalities: keyword querying
first and third tasks. In this context, we aimed
and/or the selection of relevant links sometimes
to better understand the effects of a navigational
embedded in a navigation aid like menu or a
overview of the hypermedia structure and
map [2], [3]. Most of studies showed that a
personal factors on navigation and
navigational map supports a better
Proceedings of the CIKM 2020 Workshops, October 19-20,
Galway, Ireland
EMAIL: sandrine.rome1@univ-tlse2.fr (A.1);
franck.amadieu@univ-tlse2.fr (A.2);
cecile.van.de.leemput@ulb.ac.be (A.3)
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8144-8450 (A. 1);
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3390-7146 (A.2);
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6369-2804 (A. 3)
©️ 2020 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative
Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)
2
French curriculum, cycle 3, page 6
performance. We synthesized below the state of this navigation aid according to personal
recent scientific knowledge on (1) cognitive characteristics need more investigations.
demand for the two tasks studied, in terms of
navigation and treatment of information nodes, 1.2. Influences of individual
and on (2) the main personal predictive
variables searching information with differences and overview, with
navigational overview for students at the end of young students
primary school
Prior knowledge of the subject matter has a
1.1. Cognitive demand for principal effect on performance. But with
young learners, the level of this resource is
information retrieval from
often very low. Also, reading linear printed
hypermedia document skills are powerful predictors of
navigation and performance, and browsing
Compared to a printed linear informative behaviour mediates the relationship between
document, a non-linear hypermedia allows a these skills and performance [9], [15], [16].
more flexible reading path. However, the However, over the past two decades, linear
hypermedia structure makes information informational materials are uncommon in
retrieval task more complex, and navigation children's literature. From the beginning of
behaviour are closely related to hypertext elementary school, students learn to read
reading success [5], [6]. Information searchers printed non- linear document with help of meta-
have to access relevant information while they textual clues. Although these skills are not yet
don’t know the extent of the hypermedia and fully mastered at this age, we hypothesized that
only one page is visible at a time. An effective they could support a task of information
strategy consists in discovering the entire retrieval from hypermedia. Indeed, the
document before reading the questions [7]. structural characteristics of a printed non-linear
After, they analyze question and make inferences document have similarities with a hypermedia
with their prior knowledge and reading material [17]. Otherwise, studies conducted with high
(To answer this question, what do I already know school students have shown that motivational
and what information could I find in the aspects are predictive of web search
documents, where and how to access it?). To achievement [18]. For complex academic tasks,
locate relevant nodes, they make inferences from motivational factors (self- efficacy about
hyperlinks about the content of the corresponding reading) have also been identified as predictors
nodes. When hypermedia suffer from/has a lack of reading task success [19]–[21]. However, to
of cohesion, they use their knowledge about the our knowledge, the predictive power of this
subject matter to fill in the "blanks" and build a personal characteristic has not been tested with
suitable text representation. Then, without
children, in the specific context of information
forgetting the goal of their research, they "flies
retrieval from hypermedia. Moreover, recent
over" or ignore irrelevant parts and directly access
studies on children suggest that an overview
relevant information to answer questions [7]–[9].
could help to answer questions from text.
Complexity is increased when the task requires
Indeed, Salmerón and Garcia [15] found that,
locating and integrating information from
under certain conditions, an overview had a
different nodes. “Very good level pupils” have
main effect on performance in information
motivational, attentional, cognitive and
retrieval, for answering inferential questions.
metacognitive resources to match up to these
However, they didn’t found any interaction in
cognitive demands. However, for most of them,
the relationship between skills and
at the end of primary school, explicit learnings
performances. Overview effect would be
of information retrieval strategies are in the
limited when learners' reading comprehension
process of being acquired [10]–[12]. Thus,
skills were too low: in this case, children
navigation may be "hazardous" and poor
couldn’t take full advantage of this navigation
performance are usual [10], [13], [14]. It seems
aid [22]. In contrast, Fesel and colleagues [23]
that an overview may support information
found that overview might support children
retrieval tasks in a hypermedia for young
with low prior knowledge. Furthermore, the
pupils. But as we detailed above, the effects of
interactions between personal variables and
navigation on the one hand and performances 2. Method
on the other hand are still unclear.
2.1. Design and participants
1.3. Our study: aims, framework
and hypotheses Before the study started, we informed the
headmasters of the experimental schools, the
parents and the children. We also obtained the
The present study examined both the authorizations required by French law. One
predictive power effects of new personal hundred and nineteen learners from two priority
variables (i.e. information retrieval skills in a education schools participated at the
printed non-linear document and self-efficacy experience. (Mage = 10,06 years, SD = 0,63 ; 61
about these skills) and navigable overview on females et 39 males). Before any data
navigation and performance. In addition, we collection, they were divided, into two groups:
examined the moderator effect of overview in the test group (with overview) and the control
relationships between personal variables and group (without overview). These learners rarely
navigation behaviour and performance: used tablets in class and only to do exercises,
take photography and produce simple
H1: Main effect of the overview. Overall, an documents. In addition, they regularly learned
overview displays the structure of the how information retrieval works from linear
hypermedia and allows direct access to relevant and non-linear printed documents, but never
pages (avoids the use of backward buttons and from hypermedia or from web. In addition,
intermediate pages opening) and helps to relate students' prior knowledge was very low.
information situated on different nodes. So, we Nineteen participants were excluded from the
expected that, compared to the opposite data analysis due to incomplete data (these
navigation condition, overview should support participants did not attend all sessions in the
more accurate navigation (H1a) and study).
performance should be better (H1b).
H2: Effect of personal characteristics. A 2.2. Material
printed non-linear document shares common
structural characteristics with a hypermedia.
2.2.1. Device and hypermedia
Thus, information retrieval skills in a printed
non-linear document (here, a double-page) Two versions of a hypermedia document
should have a positive influence on navigation have been designed with the software Sparkle
(H2a) and performance (H2b). Moreover, we 2.6.2 Visual Web Design [24]: with and
expected to find similar results with previous without overview.
studies regarding the relationship between
motivational aspects and navigation on the one
hand and performance on the other hand. In
other words, self-efficacy about information
retrieval should support navigation (H2c) and
performance (H2d).
H3: Interaction effect. An overview could
support students with low level skills.
Furthermore, considering motivation is related
to instructional condition, we hypothesized that
overview could also help students with low Figure 1: Example of node of the
personal resources. Thus, overview would experimental hypermedia. On the left, without
condition the effect of skills and self- efficacy overview. At the center, the same node with
about information retrieval, on navigation and overview. And, on the right, the overview
performance. In other words, without overview, opened.
information retrieval skills and self- efficacy
about these skills would have a greater effect on The two versions included texts (nearly 600
navigation (H3a) and performance (H3b). words), graphical elements and data tables
distributed on 10 nodes. Hyperlinked words and Self-Efficacy about information retrieval
backward buttons were embedded in each node. in non-linear printed document. Data about
The versions differed in the presence or not of self-efficacy was collected from self-ratings
an overview. Overview was implemented at the based on Bandura’s Children’s Self-Efficacy
top of each node. It showed exactly the Scale [26]. They indicated the strength of their
hypermedia structure. Like the city map, a red efficacy beliefs on a 100-point scale, ranging in
point indicated where the reader was in his 10-unit intervals from 0 (“I feel I can’t do it at
navigation path (Fig.1). To navigate, in both all”) to complete assurance, 100 (“I feel I can
versions of the hypermedia, participants could do it at all”). Questions were related to reading
click on hyperlinks in the text and backward and information retrieval from expository
buttons. In addition, the test- group could click printed non- linear document: for example, “To
on the Overview to display it full screen and which extent do you feel able to read an
make it interactive. The hypermedia were read expositive document that includes texts,
on iPAD tablets (9.7" screen size) belonging to pictures, graphics and data tables?” (translated
schools. from French). Chronbach’s alpha = 0.78. A
mean score of self-efficacy was computed from
2.2.2. The task the items ratings.
The task consisted of retrieving relevant
2.3.2. Dependent variables
information from hypermedia in order to
answer three questions: one explicit question Performance at the task. The scale was: 0
(i.e. factual; the answer required finding one point for wrong answer or no answer; 0.5 point
piece of information located in one node) and for a partial correct answer, and 1 point for a
two implicit questions (i.e. inferential; the full correct answer. A mean score of
answer required finding and relating two or performance was computed from the three
three pieces of information located in different items.
nodes). All questions were given at the Navigation accuracy. The quality of
beginning of the session. Students wrote their navigation was assessed from accuracy ratio
answers with paper and pencil. [27]: the total number of target nodes of the
predefined path visited / the total number of
open nodes (excluding clicks in order to open
2.3. Measures the overview page, for the test group). We
2.3.1. Individual differences computed the ratio for the global path. It was
equal to 1 if all relevant nodes were visited and
Prior knowledge. Prior knowledge about equal to 0 if none of them were visited. A mean
production and consumption of electricity was score of navigation accuracy was computed
assessed by 9 open ended questions during a from the three accuracy ratios.
collective session. For each question, the
scoring consisted of 0 point for a wrong answer 2.4. Procedure
or no answer, 0.5 for a partial correct answer,
and 1 point for a correct answer. The study was included in a Science and
Information retrieval in non-linear printed Technology learning sequence about
document skills. We used a test adapted from production and consumption of electricity
PIRL assessment tool [25]. The document which lasted nine sessions (2 sessions per week,
included texts, pictures, graphics and data on average). The experimenter conducted all
tables. In accordance with our problematic, we sessions. Prior knowledge, skills and self-
focused on retrieving and extracting factual efficacy were measured in the first session. The
information and, making simple inference. 2nd and 4th sessions consisted in a
Students answered four explicit or implicit familiarisation with hypermedia and
questions. Each item was scored as following: experimental conditions (hypermedia about
0 for no answer or wrong answer; 0.5 for a production of electricity). The 6th session was
partial answer; 1 for a correct answer. A mean the experimental session (hypermedia about
score was computed from the four items. consumption of electricity). All questions were
given on questions- answers sheet (paper and
pencil format) before starting the information 3.2. Performance
retrieval. Participants wrote their answers
respectively under each question. They could
The model for the performance scores
process questions in any order and they could
revealed a significant model, Rcoor2 = .31,
come and go between the hypermedia and the
F(6,79) = 7.44, p < .00. In accordance with our
questions as much as they needed. They could
hypotheses, overview supported performances,
ask help at the experimenter for reading
β = .91, t(85) = 4.96 p < .001. Performance were
questions and writing answers. Finally, there
also improved by skills, β = .36, t = 2.85, p =
was no time constraint. During 5th, 7th, 8th and
.006 and by self-efficacy, β = .38, t(85) = 2.84,
9th sessions, over the experimentation, the
p = .006. Moreover, prior knowledge had a
experimenter proceeded to structure new
significant effect but at the limit of the
knowledge and finally assessed the level of
conventional threshold, β = .19, t(85) = 2.05, p
acquisition about this knowledge.
= .044. About interactions, our hypotheses were
partially confirmed. There was no interaction
3. Results between skills and guidance, β = -.32, t(85) = -
1.76, p = .083. But the interaction between self-
First, we checked with t-tests that the groups efficacy and guidance was significant, β = - .40,
did not differ on the cognitive factors assessed. t(85) = -2.21, p = .003. Navigable overview
As expected, there were no differences between moderated self- efficacy effect. Overview
groups in their scores for prior knowledge, t(85) sustained participants with lower level of self-
= -.88; p = .38, skills, t(85) = 0.75, p = .45; and efficacy (Fig.2).
self-efficacy, t(85) = 1.68, p = .09.
In order to test the effects of guidance
condition (i.e. with vs. without overview) and
personal differences (skills; self-efficacy), we
performed multiple linear regression analyses
with interaction terms, on each dependent
variable. Skills and self-efficacy were entered
as z-standardized variables. The guidance
condition was entered as a contrast-coded
dummy variable. In our model, we entered prior
knowledge as a control variable but we
expected a non-significant effect because level
was very low in both groups, M = .14, SD = .17 Figure 2: Predicted value of
and for test-group, M = .17, SD = .20. performance; effects of self-efficacy
according to guidance condition
3.1. Navigation accuracy
A quick descriptive analysis of the
navigation historic showed that all participants 4. Discussion
of the test-group had systematically use
overview for their navigation. The model for The study investigated the effects of a
the navigation accuracy scores appeared navigable overview and individual
significant, Rcorr² = .21, F(5,80) = 5.58, p < .001. characteristics (skills about information
As expected, overview supported better retrieval from printed non-linear document;
navigation accuracy β = .93, t(85) = 4.78, p < self- efficacy about these skills) on navigation
.001. But in contrast with our hypotheses, and performance: main effects and interactions.
neither skills influenced navigation β = .25, Our assumptions were partially confirmed but
t(85) = 1.93, p = .056, nor self-efficacy, β = .27 tended to support or complement previous
, t(85) = 1.93, p = .057. And, no interaction was studies.
observed: neither between overview and skills,
β = -.11, t(85) = -.54, p = .59 nor between
overview and self- efficacy, β = -.26, t(85) = -
1.34, p = .18.
4.1. Predictive variables of variables, we computed the average navigation
performance and navigation accuracy. Yet,
information retrieval with young previous studies [7], [8], [16] suggested that the
learners effect of predictive variables would differ
depending on the type of question. Regarding
Predictive variables of navigation: our motivational aspects, we measured self-
study confirmed the main effect of an overview efficacy before participants were informed of
on the quality of navigation [4], [22]. In the task conditions. However, it was possible
addition, while the test-group had the choice to that self-efficacy may have evolved after the
navigate via the links embedded in the node or sessions of familiarization. Thus, for future
via the overview, all participants systematically research, it would be appropriate to collect a
used overview. Thus, the acceptability of this measure of self-efficacy after the exploratory
navigation aid would be very strong with phase and after explaining to each group the
children. It would help to make lexical or task and de navigation condition. However,
semantic correspondences between the despite these limitations, this study allowed us
question keywords and relevant nodes. It to identify directions for instructional
allowed direct access to the target pages recommendations. First, teacher should
(avoiding intermediate pages). Over this design explicitly teach the similarities and the
factor, we tested new personal variables: skills differences between different reading materials.
about information retrieval from a printed non- It would help children to transfer and adapt their
linear document and self- efficacy about these personal resources acquired in printed non
skills. We found no main effect related to linear document to hypermedia. Until students
personal variables. Maybe participants would have acquired sufficient personal resources,
not have transferred their cognitive and designers and teachers should ensure that
motivational resources on navigation strategies reading materials are equipped with a
in hypermedia; they would not have identified navigation aid like an overview. But in order to
the implicit structural similarities between a children benefit fully from overview, they need
printed non-linear document and a hypermedia. to be provided with explicit learning about it.
Predictive variables of performance: our
study confirmed that cognitive resources have a 5. Conclusion
major effect on performance. Like linear
reading skills [9], [15], [16], non-linear reading The study supported that both personal and
skills would help to process the selected pages design factors predict digital reading with
and link them. Our study also highlighted the young students. For an information retrieval
importance of taking into account motivational task, a navigational overview could be an
aspects when the task is complex and, above all, effective aid. Moreover, we highlighted the
the influence of instructional choices on importance of both cognitive and motivational
motivation [21]. Participants who felt they had variables about reading a non-linear document.
low self-efficacy would have perceived that
overview could give them autonomy.
6. Acknowledgements
4.2. Limits of the study and
This research was funded by the National
further works Agency for Research (LETACOP project). We
thank Pierre-Vincent Paubel, engineer, for his
About navigation accuracy: we could not be help in collecting and treatment of logs files.
sure that a low level reflected a lack of
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