-
Memory is defined as a cognitive function, which is primarily focused on the storage
and retrieval of information: this information is elaborated, archived, and retrieved
when necessary [
1
]. As soon as the information gets perceived [
2
], it transits into the
working memory, or short-term memory, and gets screened to access the long-term
memory, namely, the “archive” where all the information gets stored and retrieved
when needed. Short-term memory is very limited as it can store a maximum of seven
items [
3
] for a handful of seconds, and it needs to correlate new pieces of information
with the ones already stored in the long term memory, which has unlimited capacity,
and where it’s content remains almost permanently [
4
]. Mnemonics have been an
object of interest and study since ancient times. Just think about all the sections
dedicated to it in great works such as the “De oratore or Rhetorica ad Herennium”.
With the term mnemonics, we refer to a group of rules and strategies that ensure the
memorization of information and, through the creation of associative links, increased
memory capacity [
5
]. Mnemotechnic represents a powerful pedagogical tool. It is
accessible and easy, it favors the creation of associations through the use of a vivid
imagination that imprints the item in the memory, and transforms the learning process
in a cognitively and emotionally stimulating activity [
6, 7
]. There are multiple
memorization techniques. For example, some authors suggest training memory by
using images, images, and rhymes, creating personal memorable associations,
dividing words into significant parts, combining sentences to write or inventing
stories [
8
]. Some Russian scholars suggest the use of “mnemotables'', which are
schemes drawn with determined information, together with the following methods:
"chain" (linking images in associations); symbolization (to memorize abstract
concepts); tie concepts to familiar information to facilitate engagement [
7
].
Furthermore, it is appropriate to mention the technique of loci: the transformation of
concepts, information, into mental images with the consequent positioning of these in
places. This technique requires that the mental images created are clear and precise, in
such a way as to always allow double encoding, that is, as we have viewed the image
from the term (Encoding or Viewing Phase), it will be possible, having seen the
image, to trace the information to remember (Decoding or Verbalization Phase); the
P.A.V. (Paradox, Action, Vivid), a technique that allows you to associate a paradox
with a certain element, transforming this element into an action. Using this tool, it is
possible to provoke a vivid emotion in the subconscious that produces a mental
connection capable of activating the ability to memorize. The technique of phonetic
conversion, a technique of memorizing numbers. It works by converting numbers into
consonants and, by appropriately adding vowels, transforming them into words that
can be remembered more easily than a series of numbers, particularly using other
mnemonic rules (P.A.V. and loci technique). Finally, we have the '' Keyword method
'' (Atkinson) which is the most used memory technique in the study of foreign
languages.
2
Literature Analysis
Studies in the literature have placed their focus on the use of memory techniques in
relation to the study of foreign languages. Specifically, the "Keyword Method" turns
out to be the memory technique that most represents the object of study in relation to
the effectiveness of memory techniques. The term "Keyword" was used by Atkinson
in 1975 in an article where he proposed the use of this type of mnemonics to facilitate
the learning of the vocabulary of foreign languages. Within the article, Atkinson
analyzed the effectiveness of the ''Keyword" technique for the study of the Russian
language for English-speaking subjects. This mnemotechnic is based on two phases,
verbal and visual. The first phase consists of developing a keyword that is concrete
and that is as similar as possible from the phonetic and spelling point of view to the
word you want to memorize. The second phase consists of constructing an image that
associates, relates the previously elaborated keyword with the meaning of the word
under consideration[
9–11
]. Following the description of this mnemotechnic, several
studies have been carried out in order to corroborate its effectiveness[
12–15
]. The
keyword mnemotechnic results effectively in laboratory situations, when applied
individually and when the keyword is provided by the experimenter. However, the
results of the above studies are not equally clear when referring to the application of
this memory technique in a collective context, such as the classroom [
16, 17
] and,
similarly, in natural contexts, without control over the environment, where the subject
elaborates the keyword [
11, 18, 19
], or in group situations [
20
]. Furthermore, Campos
[
11
], highlights a further limitation of this mnemonics in reference to the moment of
memory.
According to the author, the mnemonics of the keyword are effective in reference to a
short-term, immediate recall of information; on the other hand, it would be less
effective if we refer to a long-term recall of information. In accordance with what was
previously stated, some studies in the literature [
18, 19, 21–23
] do not show any
positive effects in the use of keyword mnemonics for long-term memorization.
However, other studies carried out by Mastropieri, Emerich, and Scruggs [
21
]; Merry
[
24
]; Sweeney and Bellezza [
25
], record the effectiveness of this mnemonics also in
the long term. Subsequently, with the aim of improving some of the criticalities listed
so far in the "keyword" memorization technique, Campos and colleagues [
26
] carried
out experiments that consisted of greater processing of the "keyword"; specifically,
they carried out a study with students aged 12 to 15 (Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria), who had the task of learning the meaning of a list of 30 Latin words
using the mnemonics of the "key-word" in a different way: a group had to
autonomously elaborate its own keyword, another group benefited from the
experimenter's help in choosing the "Keyword" and the third group was given a
"keyword" that had previously been chosen and elaborated by the companions of the
experimental group. The group that used the "keyword" developed by the peers
memorized the word list both immediately and after a week significantly more
effective than the other groups. In another study by Campos [
26
] carried out two
experiments to evaluate the effectiveness of the "keyword" mnemonics. In the first
experiment, they used 4 groups of subjects aged 12 to 15 (Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria) who were given a list of 16 Latin words, the first 8 with images, and the
last 8 without images, that had to be memorized using different strategies. One group
had to learn the wordlist through the method of repetition, the second group through
the mnemonics of the "Key Word" generated independently, the third group instead,
used a keyword provided by the experimenter and the fourth group used a keyword
generated and elaborated by the companions of the experimental group. The most
important result obtained from this study was that the words with vivid images, the
group that used the “keyword” mnemonics, remembered more significantly than the
group that used the repetition method. In the second experiment, they administered a
list of 32 words and verified that with words with images, the group that used the
keyword elaborated by the companions, produced a more effective memory than both
the group that used the method of repetition and the group that independently
elaborated their own keyword. Furthermore, in relation to the studies on the efficiency
of "keyword" mnemonics in the study of foreign languages, Shcherbakova, O.,
Cherkashina, T., Yakhno, M., Budanova, I., & Galoyan [
5
] state that the use of
mnemonics in the classroom guarantees the systematic and conscious acquisition of
the material under study, contributing to the rapid understanding of the specific rules
of the target language. Transforming didactic material into visual images or
comparing it with the knowledge already acquired on the basis of the association
principle, guarantees its memorization and arouses interest in the lesson. The studies
carried out to verify the effectiveness of the "keyword" mnemonics were mostly
carried out with children, adolescents, and university students, consequently, it was
necessary to produce scientific works in order to verify the actual effectiveness of this
mnemotechnics also in relation to adults. Therefore, some studies present in the
literature [
27, 28
], affirm that the vividness of the image elaborated by adults,
necessary to implement mnemonics, turns out to be lower than the one elaborated by
younger subjects when used as a measurement in a performance test. However, when
questionnaires are used, there are no significant differences between the different age
groups [
26, 29, 30
].With regards to the results of the few studies in the literature on
the effectiveness of the use of "keyword" mnemonics with adult subjects, some
scholars support the use of the "keyword" strategy [
14, 31, 32
] others, on the other
hand, affirm that there is no increase in memory through the use of this mnemonics
[
33, 34
]. However, in summary, it is possible to state that adults can also benefit from
mnemotechnic even if with lesser effects than young people and with the need for
more training [
35–38
]. Later, Campos and colleagues [
39
] carried out a study to
verify the effectiveness of mnemonics for the study of the Latin language with adults.
Participants used interactive images to impress memory since processing interacting
images turns out to be the most effective form of using mental images [
10, 40
]. The
group of people who participated in the experiment had an average age of 59.35 and
had to memorize the translation of a list of 16 Latin words. The group that used the
"keyword" mnemonics recorded a significantly more effective memory, both
immediately and after one day, than the group that used the repetition technique. In
the second experiment, the experimenters used a list of 24 words, of which the
experimented subjects had to learn the translation using the “keyword” mnemonics
with the addition of drawings/images. In this case, too, a significantly more effective
memory was recorded than the memory of the group that used the repetition
technique.
Alfredo Campos, investigate the extent to
Maria Josè Perez, which 1) the types of images
GMoanrizaales (19A9n7g)eles generated by the subject
“The Interactiveness (normal or bizarre), 2) the
of Paired Images is vividness of the images
Affected by Image generated, and 3) the
Bizarreness and subject's imaging ability
Image Vividness” affect the degree of
interaction between images
Campos et
(2003)
“Limitation of the
mnemonic keyword
method”
al. The effectiveness of the
mnemonic keyword method
was investigated in 4
experiments.
152 Spanish
compulsory
secondary
education
students
significant effects.
The results were
essentially the same
regardless of whether
words were presented
in short (16-pair) or
long (32-pair) lists.
Experiments 1 In all experiments,
(adolescents) and the rote method was
2 (adults). significantly more
Experiments 3 effective than was the
(adolescents) and keyword method.
4 (adults).
Campos et al. In this study, two
(2004) experiments were performed
“The ImpoKrteaynwceordo-f to assess the efficacy of a
the
Generation Method new keyword-generation
in Keyword procedure (peer generation)
Mnemonics”
363 high-school
students were
randomly
divided into four
groups.
Campos et al. The effects of different 175 Spanish
(2007) image types: normal, bizarre, Secondary
r“eMcaelnltal imagearnyd, or mixed imagery on Compulsory
recognition in high immediate, after a day, and Education
vivid imagery one week, in high vivid students (90 men
subjects” imagery subjects were and 85 women)
investigated.
Campos et
(2010).
“Efficacy of the
keyword mnemonic
method in adults”.
al. Two experiments were used
to assess the efficacy of the
keyword mnemonic method
in adults
the peer-generated
keyword group
showed significantly
better recall of
highvividness words than
the rote method
groups and the
subject generated
keyword group.
Culpaper et al. Students from two
sixth(1998) “Using grade classes received
mnemonic
keywords in general instruction in music history
music Classes: regarding composers and the
music history meets musical periods in which
cognitive they worked in a
psychology” counterbalanced design over
a 2-week period.
45 students who
participated in
this study were
enrolled in the
sixth grade in a
suburban school
in the Midwest.
Students scored
statistically and
substantially higher
on recall tests
involving items
presented with
mnemonic
illustrations.
Gonzalez &
(2004)
“different strategies
for keyword
generation”
Scailquin Jean- In the present study, 165
Christophe (2000) healthy participants aged 18
“oEnftfheectGsenoefratAiogninogf to 80 years were enrolled for
Mental Images” an image generation task to
image an uppercase letter in
response to its lowercase
version displayed as the cue,
and to decide if a displayed
probe would be near to or on
the image.
Amor This study tested the efficacy 284 Spanish high The result indicates
of keywords previously school students, that both immediate
generated by subjects of aged 12-16 and one-week recall
similar sociodemographic years. was significantly
characteristics. better in
peergenerated-keyword
group than in the
subject-generatedkeyword and the
experiment-suppliedkeyword group.
165 healthy Comparative analyses
participants aged (ANOVAs) on
18 to 80 years accuracy and correct
latency confirmed the
sequential nature of
image generation,
and showed a
detrimental and linear
effect of aging only
on the activation
subprocess.
36 female and 41 The retrieval training
male Year 6/7 was a significant
students (age predictor of both
11e12 years) backward and
forward recall
performance, as was
the ability to make
images.
Wyra et al. (2007) This study examines the
“The mnemonic effects on recall of
wordkTehyewordeffecmtsethoodf: meaning pairs of (a) training
bidirectional in the use of the keyword
retrieval training procedure at the time of
and of ability to retrieval; and (b) the
image on foreign influence of the self-rated
language vocabulary ability to image.
recall”
3
Conclusion
It is also appropriate to notice the lack of studies in the literature that set their
argumentative focus on other memorization strategies. Furthermore, it would be
relevant to highlight the opportunity to expand the studies on the subject in relation to
the use of mnemonics as a compensatory teaching tool in learning disabilities (L.D.)
and special needs students, in order to produce new techniques and teaching tools that
can compensate for some difficulties present in these students [
2
]. Finally, it would be
interesting to produce scientific works that could highlight the usefulness of the use of
mnemonics, especially in the school / academic environment, in synchrony with the
advancement of technology. Studies in the literature demonstrate the possibility of
using technology to support the study of foreign languages based on keyword
mnemonics. Manolis Savva presented TransPhoner: a system that generates keywords
for a variety of scenarios including vocabulary learning, phonetic transliteration, and
creative wordplays. In this work, the authors select effective keywords by considering
phonetic, orthographic, and semantic word similarity, and word concept imageability.
The result of this study shows that keywords provided by TransPhoner improve
learner performance in an online vocabulary learning study, with the improvement
being more pronounced for harder words. Participants rated TransPhoner keywords as
more helpful than a random keyword baseline, and almost as helpful as manually
selected keywords. Comments also indicated higher engagement in the learning task,
and more desire to continue learning. The study demonstrates additional applications
to tasks such as pure phonetic transliteration, generation of mnemonics for complex
vocabulary, and topic-based transformation of song lyrics [
47
]. Another work
provided by Anonthanasap et al. proposed a new educational system for
secondlanguage vocabulary learning based on a mnemonic technique. The system is
equipped with the dynamic and interactive interface that allows vocabulary learners to
seamlessly browse a collection of foreign words while suggesting phonetically related
words of a known language for helping the memorization of unfamiliar languages.
The phonetic algorithm is employed to encode the pronunciation of words. The
phonetic codes of words are then applied to homonyms of different languages. The
Levenshtein distance is used to quantify the similarity of phonetic codes or of words’
pronunciation. The mnemonic words with their associated images are presented
surrounding the learning words according to the edit distance or phonetic similarity.
With visual effects based on the user’s input, the dynamic and interactive interface
will help users browse a collection of vocabulary [
48
]. Furthermore, the creation of
software that, through the use of Tangible User Interfaces (TUI), can exploit the
attractive dimension together with the theoretical efficiency of mnemonics. For
example, it might be interesting to use tangible interfaces such as cards with images,
letters, or numbers connected to a software, to implement the storage of concepts,
historical dates, scientific formulas. Using the theoretical model of keyword
mnemotechnics. Specifically, in accordance with the recent evidence of the scientific
literature and using the memorization techniques that have been analyzed in this
review, we could identify innovative and multimodal systems useful for creating a
learning support for students with SEN (Special Educational Needs) and SLD
(Specific Learning Disorder).
5