Stealth Democracy? Searching for a Democratic Middle-Ground

Abstract

In this paper, we present a reflection on the need for an in-between, low-threshold type of democracy for involving the so-called "silent majority" of citizens. Based on our findings from various cases, we find indications that this type of system can contribute to what we call stealth or "implicit democracy", i.e., citizen feedback on particular issues raised by politicians. In a recent study, both politicians and participating citizens report that they were happy with the pilot results and would like to continue using the system. The second round of testing, with an extended version of the system, is planned for 2020/21. Acknowledgements: The work presented in this paper was partially funded by the Oslofjord regional research fund, project 289252.

Keywords

• eParticipation
• implementation
• survey
• pilot study
• implicit participation
• evaluation

-

Skogerbø, 2013), but the quality of communication is lacking, and it is difficult to extract meaningful information and handle the conversation (Majumdar, 2017) .

As a middle-ground between complex tailored systems and the anarchy of social media, authors such as Hibbing and Theiss-Morse argue for what they call "stealth democracy" (Hibbing & TheissMorse, 2002), claiming that most people want to heard, but are not interested in taking the time to understand and read up on complex issues. Instead, they argue that a feasible approach to participation is to ask simple questions about issues where citizens can form an opinion without having to read hundreds of pages of documentation.

While stealth democracy is an idea situated in a different context from the European and Norwegian democratic tradition, it nonetheless provides a starting point for discussing the merits of polling-type systems as a bridge between traditional deliberation and involvement and the sarcastic comments found in social media and news.

The purpose of this reflection paper is thus to throw up some ideas regarding a third way/implicit/entry-level type of democratic participation, which could aid in providing a voice to the often silent majority of citizens who choose not to participate in traditional politics. We aim to develop these thoughts into a robust theoretical viewpoint on levels of participation and how different technological systems can act together to strengthen democracy in a time of fake news, post-truth, and polarization. We hope our reflection can contribute to some discussion at the conference and also provide feedback for further work.

2. Democracy and Participation

Signs are indicating that liberal democracy is struggling. The 2015 refugee crisis in Europe, populists, being elected for president or prime minister, yellow vests in France, and "illiberal democracy" in Eastern Europe. The Norwegian paper Morgenbladet, in collaboration with the "breaking bad" research project, has created a map of authoritarian changes in the legal systems of European nations, which shows that several countries, including Western European ones, are moving away from liberal ideals (Reinertsen, Jakobsen & Belgaux, 2019) . This trend is aided by social media polarization, fake news, bots spreading propaganda, and an increasing number of activist web sites positioning themselves as alternatives to mainstream media (Sunstein, 2018) . The so-called alt-right find each other on online platforms such as 4chan, Tumblr, and 8chan to coordinate campaigns against political opponents, and disinformation is an issue high on the EU's agenda (Comisión Europea, 2019) .

In Norway, most of us still report high levels of trust in the political system and institutions, but a significant minority is less trusting, and choose not to vote in elections (Kleven, 2016) . Voter turnout is lower among the young, and few are actively trying to influence policy. Those who do tend to be in the high income/higher education demographic, which typically would be labelled as elites (With, 2017). As trust is an essential determinant of intention to use eParticipation systems, a socio-technical approach to eParticipation is necessary (Naranjo Zolotov, Oliveira & Casteleyn, 2018) . Earlier research has shown that eParticipation systems need a clear purpose and form (Hurwitz, 2003) , concretization of the outcomes of participation (Kolsaker & Kelly, 2008) and feedback mechanisms, so citizens see the impact of participation (Kolsaker, 2005) . 2.1.

Models of Participation and Democracy

Democracies should involve citizens through elections, political parties (Dewey, 1927; Oppenheim, 1971) , and citizen/politician dialogue in various channels and media within the frames of representative democracy (Brooks & Manza, 2007) . While the meaning of the term "citizen" has varied over time, with restrictions based on gender, land-ownership, age, and social class (Schreiner, 1992) , modern definitions include every adult in the nation. Contrary to proponents of elitist democracy, Dewey (1927) argued that "only the public can decide what public interest is". Dewey and later Habermas emphasized the need for dialogue in order for "such a thing as public opinion to be formed (Habermas, 1991) . For practical reasons, most democratic countries follow some representative model, where citizens elect representatives to look after their interests, accompanied by rights such as freedom of information, association and expression, and a universal right (for adults) to vote in elections (Urbinati, 2011) .

Even within a representative democracy, there are several idealized models, with different normative criteria for participation. One example, from Ferree and colleagues (Ferree, Gamson, Gerhards & Rucht, 2002) , describes four different models of democracy; Representative liberal, Participatory liberal, Discursive, and Constructionist. The models outline the amount of citizen participation, based on « who should speak, the content of the process (what), style of speech preferred (how), and the relationship between discourse and decision-making (outcomes) that is sought (or feared)." (s.290). While some countries focus mostly on the act of voting, others, such as Norway, see it as a democratic value that citizens engage in dialogue and are involved in decisionmaking between elections (participatory liberal model), and participation in the public debate is seen as a value in and of itself (Habermasian discursive model). The Norwegian constitution (§100, part 6) states, "government is required to facilitate open and rational public discourse". Even so, membership in political parties is in decline, with only 7 percent of the adult population being members of a political party, according to Statistics Norway. Thus, there is a need to find new ways of communicating between politicians and citizens.

3. eParticipation Complexity and Activity

eParticipation as a field is defined as a range of different activities with varying outcomes and effects, targeting different democratic ideal-types (Saebø, Rose & Skiftenes Flak, 2008) . This means that when discussing specific systems and applications, researchers should be clear about the type of democracy the system supports.

The activities identified can be set on a scale based on the potential democratic outcomes and the effort needed for participation. In the 1960s, Arnstein addressed this issue and created a "ladder of participation", showing the democratic outcomes of various activities (Arnstein, 1969) . While we have yet to develop the full theoretical argument, section 2.1 is a beginning towards this end - finding a normative distinction between the outcomes of different eParticipation activities. Future work on our framework will extend this.

Deliberation or political discourse, as Saebø (et al., 2008) defines it, is a time-consuming and demanding process, requiring us to understand the facts and arguments from all sides and them engaging in reasoned debate about the best possible outcome (Habermas, 1991) . On the other hand, voting or rooting for a party or a politician requires less of the citizen. In voting campaigns, the work lies with the politicians who have to argue and campaign for the citizens to cast the votes in their direction (Hooghe & Dassonneville, 2018). Simplified, one can argue that eParticipation systems aimed at more demanding activities such as deliberation require more of the user in terms of handling complex arguments and spending more time, while activities such as choosing whom to vote for requires less from the citizen (table 1), as we have seen in section 1.

4. Stealth/Lightweight/Implicit/In-Between Democracy?

Hibbing and Theiss-Morse (Hibbing & Theiss-Morse, 2002) found that many citizens were tired of politics and political debates as they play out in the media and do not wish to become too involved. At the same time, citizens want to be able to express their opinion and be heard. They are happy to participate in surveys or contribute in other ways, such as through FixMyStreet-type services related to their areas of interest (Berntzen, Johannessen, Böhm, Weber & Morales, 2018) .

Over the past few years, we have participated in several studies examining how lightweight participation can contribute to democracy. Based on these, and the findings from evaluations of both more and less complicated and structured systems, we argue that systems for rapid feedback have the potential to be a missing link between the open and unstructured debate found in social media the form of surveys, data analysis through sensors or apps such as FixMyStreet and similar allow citizens to participate in a way that gives valuable insights to decision-makers, without having to spend too much time and effort.

In 2019, we evaluated a system built for this purpose. A mobile app designed as a tool for consultation, where politicians ask questions, and citizens answer. The outcome is both increased civic engagement and general democratic effects, depending on how the politicians decide to use the system. After a pilot study in five municipalities, we found that a vast majority of citizens were happy with how the system was applied, and they felt politicians were hearing them without them having to spend too much time or effort on politics.

The question is if this can facilitate a new form of participation, situated between voting and deliberation in terms of participatory outcomes, and low/high complexity and time on the system side. Also, future testing of the app will examine if and how this can lead citizens towards investing more time and effort in deliberative political activities. Hibbing, J. R., & Theiss

Should Work. Cambridge Studies in Public Opinion and Political Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hooghe, M., & Dassonneville, R. (2018). Explaining the Trump vote: The effect of racist resentment and antiimmigrant sentiments. PS: Political Science & Politics, 51(3), 528 534. With, M. L. (2017). Politiske ressurser og deltakelse. SSB.

About the Authors

Marius Rohde Johannessen Marius Rohde Johannessen is associate professor in Information Systems at the University of South-Eastern Norway. His research interests lie in the areas of digital democracy, social media and citizen participation in Smart Cities. Examples of projects include studies of the Norwegian elections, comparisons of political communication in traditional and new media, and how Smart cities can facilitate and benefit from including citizens. His work mostly lies on the crossroads between Information Systems and media studies. Lasse Berntzen Lasse Berntzen is professor of Information Systems at the University of South-Eastern Norway. His research interests are focused towards the broader eGovernment area as well as Smart Cities and sensor technology. Examples of projects include benchmarking studies of eGovernment through the eGovMon project, business models and blockchain in Smart grids and citizen participation through sensor use in Norwegian municipalities, as well as Government innovation in general. Berntzen is also employed as the international coordinator for the department, and is always looking for new partners and new projects.

References

Arnstein , S. R. ( 1969 ). A Ladder Of Citizen Participation . Journal of the American Institute of Planners , 35 ( 4 ), 216 224 . https://doi.org/10.1080/01944366908977225

Berntzen , L. , Johannessen , M. R. , Böhm , S. , Weber , C. , & Morales , R. ( 2018 ). Citizens as sensors: Human sensors as a smart city data source . In SMART 2018 : The Seventh International Conference on Smart Cities, Systems, Devices and Technologies.

Brooks , C. , & Manza , J. ( 2007 ). Why welfare states persist: The importance of public opinion in democracies . Chicago: University of Chigaco Press.

Comisión Europea . ( 2019 ). Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the European council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Report on the Implementation of the Action Plan Against Disinformation . https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014 - 0173-7 . 2

Dewey , J. ( 1927 ). The Public and its Problem . Athens: Swallow Press/Ohio University Press.

popularity. Northern Lights: Film & Media Studies Yearbook , 15 ( 1 ), 33 50 .

https://doi.org/10.1386/nl.15.1. 33 _ 1

Enli , G. S. , & Skogerbø , E. ( 2013 ). Personalized campaigns in party-centered politics: Twitter and Facebook as arenas for political communication . Information Communication and Society . https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X. 2013 .782330

Ferree , M. M. , Gamson , W. A. , Gerhards , J. , & Rucht , D. ( 2002 ). Four models of the public sphere in modern democracies . Theory and Society . https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016284431021

Habermas , J. ( 1991 ). The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An inquiry into a category of bourgeoise society . Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

Hurwitz , R. ( 2003 ). Who needs politics? Who needs people? The ironies of democracy in cyberspace . In H. Jenkins & D. Thorburn (Eds.), Democracy and new media (pp. 101 112 ). Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

Kleven , Ø. ( 2016 ). Nordmenn på tillitstoppen i Europa. Samfunnsspeilet , 2 .

Kolsaker , A. ( 2005 ). Third Way e-Government: The Case for Local Devolution . In E-Government: Towards Electronic Democracy (pp. 70 80 ).

International Journal of Public Sector Management , 21 ( 7 ), 723 738 .

Majumdar , S. R. ( 2017 ). The case of public involvement in transportation planning using social media . Case Studies on Transport Policy . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp. 2016 . 11 .002

Naranjo Zolotov , M. , Oliveira , T. , & Casteleyn , S. ( 2018 ). E-participation adoption models research in the last 17 years: A weight and meta-analytical review. Computers in Human Behavior . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb. 2017 . 12 .031

Oppenheim , F. E. ( 1971 ). DEMOCRACY CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDED AND EXCLUDED . The Monist, 55 ( 1 ), 29 50 . https://doi.org/10.2307/27902204

Porwol , L. , Ojo , A. , & Breslin , J. ( 2014 ). A semantic deliberation model for e-Participation. In Innovation and the Public Sector . https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1- 61499 -429-9-40

Reinertsen , M. B. , Jakobsen , H. Ø. , & Belgaux , C. ( 2019 ). F-ordet . Morgenbladet.

Saebø , Ø , Rose, J. , & Molka-Danielsen , J. ( 2010 ). eParticipation: Designing and Managing Political Discussion Forums. Social Science Computer Review , 28 ( 4 ), 403 426 .

Saebø , Øystein, Rose, J. , & Skiftenes Flak , L. ( 2008 ). The shape of eParticipation: Characterizing an emerging research area . Government Information Quarterly , 25 ( 3 ), 400 428 .

Schreiner , J. H. ( 1992 ). Antikkens historie . Oslo: J.H. Schreiner .

Sunstein , C. R. ( 2018 ). Republic divided: Divided democracy in the age of social media . Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Taudes , A. , & Leo , H. ( 2014 ). Determinants of the willingness to contribute to an eConsultation. In Innovation and the Public Sector . https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1- 61499 -429-9-13

Urbinati , N. ( 2011 ). Representative democracy and its critics . The Future of Representative Democracy