Processing Based on Semantics and Syntax Approach

Abstract

The article deals with the application of generating grammars in linguistic modelling. Analysis of sentence syntax modelling is used to automate studying and synthesising natural language texts. The complex research of automatic processing of English and considering the semantics and syntax of natural languages is conducted. A comparative linguistic approach to the syntax and semantics of English and Ukrainian languages synthesises the corpora of natural language texts. The automatic operation of relevant text data is carried out. Comparative analysis of these languages facilitates the development of the linguistic algorithm for converting natural language texts of Germanic and Slavic type. Natural language processing, word order, Ukrainian language, NLP, English language, noun group, verb group, direct word order, grammatical category, base form, structural scheme, information resource processing, natural language text, terminal chain identification, terminal chain production, keywords identification, blocked words, rubrics Each language is unique in its structure and characteristics of the linguistic unit's construction for delivering meaningful texts. For automatic processing of coherent data texts, developing the algorithms for analysis and synthesis of natural language texts [1]. For example, it is for automatic translation, synthesis of replies in robotics, intuitive dialogue in machine-human mode, and automated processing of different languages' information resources starting with filtering/searching relevant data to form event proposals for the media. The difficulties begin with the developer's personality as he/she is used to perceiving the realis within the scope of the natural language from the early years without being conscious of the depth of another language group than his/her native [2-3]. Why is it difficult for foreigners to learn Ukrainian if their mother tongue is of another language group, not Slavic? What are the characteristics of automatic translation or recognized image descriptions regarding the syntax (the problem is almost perfectly solved in this field) and semantics of the texts? Let us consider an example.

1. Introduction

Holoshchuk)

2021 Copyright for this paper by its authors. of a living thing. On the other hand, the boot also “sits” on foot, and it is not an actual item and does not have the part of the body on which the cat can sit. It is not clear what principle and what logic is used to describe the action of sitting, lying, and standing. That is why the foreigners consider our language quite complex, and in-jokes compare it with Chinese. For a native speaker who is used to think according to the rules of his mother tongue, such nuances of usage are natural. Still, they are pretty confusing for a foreigner, especially for another language group [ 3 ].

Considering the structures of the synthetic of English and Ukrainian sentences, we can find that English, unlike Ukrainian, has a direct word order in a sentence [ 5 ]. It is arranged according to the following pattern: Subject + Predicate + Object. The other parts of the sentence are usually placed in front of the subject or after the object. Let us give you an example of the number of ways how the sentence Ditiam (children) podobaietsia (like) morozyvo (an icecream) can be expressed in the Ukrainian language [ 3 ]: 1. Ditiam podobaietsia morozyvo. (Дітям подобається морозиво.) 2. Ditiam morozyvo podobaietsia. (Дітям морозиво подобається.) 3. Morozyvo podobaietsia ditiam. (Морозиво подобається дітям.) 4. Morozyvo ditiam podobaietsia. (Морозиво дітям подобається.) 5. Podobaietsia ditiam morozyvo. (Подобається дітям морозиво.) 6. Podobaietsia morozyvo ditiam. (Подобається морозиво дітям)

The same sentence has the structure in English: Subject + Predicate + Object (Children like an ice cream). Changing standard word order is called “inversion”, and it is also typical for the English language, especially with the aim of emphasis. Still, it is not as common as in Ukrainian [6-8]. English is an analytical language, while Ukrainian is a synthetic language [9-12]. In analytical languages, the relationship between words in a sentence primarily depends on word order.

In contrast, synthetic languages show case by inflecting words (i.e., changing the phrase form in preestablished patterns). The words children, like, ice cream are not declined in cases and therefore formally cannot indicate who likes what (purpose of action, i.e., to determine where the subject and where the object of action): дітям морозиво (an icecream for the children) or морозиву діти (children for the icecream). The last pattern does not make sense, but if to substitute ice cream with a name of the living creature, we will receive the different meaning of the sentences: Children like animals (Дітям подобаються тварини) and Animals like children (Тваринам подобаються діти) [ 3 ].

2. Related works

It is crucial to define a linguistic unit first for the development of any linguistic algorithm. For this purpose, the analysis, which consists of two stages, is carried out [ 1-3 ]: 1) the reason for the future algorithm and 2) the group of languages for which the algorithm is set. According to the purpose of the future algorithm, the corresponding areas of research and analysis are chosen: grapheme, morphological, syntactic, semantic, lexical, etc. The latter one determines a choice of lexical units as a part of natural language. Any language consists of sounds (in oral speech) and letters (in writing). In its turn, sounds and letters make syllables, and syllables constitute the parts of words. Sentences consist of words, and texts comprise sentences [ 1-7 ].

Areas of research and analysis of natural language

Each of these components has specific rules and patterns of functionality. Phonetics studies pronunciation of sounds, words, the intonation of a sentence; orthography includes norms of spelling, capitalization, word breaks, and punctuation; lexicography deals with the compilation of dictionaries; morphology studies how words are formed and their relationship to other words in the same language; and the rules of arrangement of words into sentences are studied by syntax [8-12].

Unfortunately, all languages (unfortunately, today we do not know the exact number of languages spoken by the Earth's population: it comprises some about a few thousand) are combined into groups [ 3 ]. English belongs to the same group of Danish, German, Norwegian, Swedish, and other languages. They form a group of Germanic languages, which together with languages of Europe and Asia, for example, Slavic (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Polish, Ukrainian, Russian, Czech, etc.), Romance (Spanish, Italian, Romanian, French, etc.) comprise one large family of languages – Indo-European one [13-25].

In the process of historical development, the English language has undergone significant changes [ 3 ]. In the early ages of its development, it was an inflectional (synthetic) language, i.e. nouns had gender (Masculine, Feminine, Neuter), varied in cases. However, as in the Ukrainian language, there were not seven cases, but only four – Nominal, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, which are still preserved in the German language). Adjectives agreed with nouns in case, number and gender (as in the Ukrainian language), and the sentence word order was loose. Modern English is very different. Table 1 is presented an English and Ukrainian languages comparative analysis [26-37].

The personal pronoun you have the same form in the plural, addressing a group of people, and

the singular, addressing one person.

Personal pronouns: she means living beings of the female sex; he replaces nouns that denote living beings of the male sex; it replaces nouns that indicate inanimate objects and animals of the masculine, feminine, neuter gender

singular form.

The form of the verb depends on the action it

expresses. Is it the one, which occurs in general, always, constantly, often? Does it happen at the time of speech or before some

other action in the past, etc.? It is widely used with various adverbs that

change their lexical meaning.

It has its basic or root form similarly as it is in the Ukrainian language. There are, however, four other forms of the infinitive, which

depend on the verb tense.

English verbs have two participles: the present participle and the past participle. Participles

Ukrainian non-applicable

It has grammatical gender.

Based on grammatical gender, nouns are divided into Neuter, Feminine and Masculine gender.

There are seven cases.

Relationships and connections are

expressed via cases.

Adjectives agree with a noun in

case, number and gender.

It agrees in case and gender.

Pronouns are divided into nine

categories.

There are two forms of the personal pronoun of the second person: in the singular ty (ти, you),

in the plural vy (ви, you).

Personal pronouns: vin (він, he) denotes all masculine nouns; vona (вона, she) denotes all feminine nouns; vono (воно, it) marks all

neuter gender nouns.

It is used to show that the action is completed/not completed. It does not express the meaning of the action as the English verb does. It has only a basic form.

It has only one form. are also used in the function of adverbial

modifiers.

Non-applicable in “pure” form

It has two forms.

It has six forms Non-applicable

Non-applicable They are available in the language, e.g., vechoriie (it is getting dark).

There are no significant differences.

Direct word order in a sentence: Subject + Predicate + secondary parts of the sentence

Word order in a sentence is loose.

There are 26 letters in English (Table 2) [1-7].

12 They can be long and short. If to replace one sound with another one, it leads to a change of the word meaning.

8

Some English vowels consist of two elements, which are pronounced within

the same syllable (diphthongs).

They are always voiced at the end of a word and before deaf consonants; the word's meaning often changes if they are unvoiced. Voiced consonants change into deaf sounds at the end of the word: viz (віз, cart) [віс] ([vis]), Bog (Бог, God) [бох] ([boh]), dub (дуб, oak) [дуп] ([dup]).

These letters separately or in combination form is 24 consonant sounds and 20 vowels and diphthongs. Thus, there are fewer letters in English but more consonant and vowel sounds; diphthongs are not available in the Ukrainian language. Therefore, the pronunciation and reading of English letters and sounds unavailable in the Ukrainian language cause some difficulties in mastering English phonetics [ 1-7 ].

It is well known that English pronunciation does not follow the rules the words are spelt. There is even a joke on that phenomenon “Write Manchester, read Liverpool.” The differences between spelling and pronunciation of words are very significant. Since the sound system of the English language has undergone great changes for a long time, the spelling has not changed. As it is already mentioned, 26 letters of the English alphabet can make 44 sounds. The sound system of the Ukrainian language has 38 sounds: 6 vowels and 32 consonants. Thus, the same letter can have several sound meanings, i.e. to transmit several different sounds. As an example, let us consider the English words night and thought [ 3 ]. The first word has five letters, pronounced as [nait], not [night]. The second word has seven letters, and it is pronounced as [θɔːt], not [thought]. Some words are read and spelt the same, for example, ten [ten], bin [bin], etc. Each sound of the English language has a corresponding symbol in the phonetic transcription. English sounds significantly differ from the sounds of the Ukrainian language. Some sounds in English do not have an equivalent one in Ukrainian. There are also differences in the intonation of the English sentence comparing to the Ukrainian one.

Some features are worth discussing to consider vocabulary, i.e. the transfer of words and phrases of the English language into Ukrainian. It would be most convenient for language study or translation if there were a single English equivalent (vase – vase) for each Ukrainian word or phrase and vice versa. However, language is an alive system that constantly develops (often independently of other languages), and that is the reason to classify its words and phrases into three groups [ 3 ]: 1. Words and phrases having direct equivalents: snow [snəʊ] – snig [snih], to do exersises [du ˈeksəsaɪzɪz] – vykonuvaty vpravy [vykonuvaty vpravy] (ukr. виконувати вправи). 2. Words and phrases that have a. A corresponding meaning only in a certain context (polycemy): floor [flɔː(r)] – the surface of a room that you walk on or level of building (Ukr. підлога or поверх); b. The meaning of components is different from the meaning of the whole word combination: hour hand [ˈaʊə haend] – the small hand on a clock or watch that points to the hour (Ukr. годинкова стрілка): hour – hodyna (година), hand – ruka (рука). 3. Words and phrases that do not exist in another language and are translated only with the help of a descriptive method: assassination [əˌsaesɪˈneɪʃn] – pidstupne vbyvstvo[ˌpidstupne ˈvbyvstvo] (підступне (зрадницьке) вбивство); doba (доба) [doba] – day and night [deɪ ənd naɪt], or 24 hours [ˈtwenti fɔː(r) ˈaʊə(r)z]; blakytnyi (блакитний) [blakytnyi] – blue [bluː], synii (синій) [syn`ii], – blue [bluː].

3. Material and methods

The main differences in the phonetic and grammatical structure of modern English and Ukrainian languages are presented in Table 3 [ 3, 38-49 ].

The noun in English and Ukrainian denotes objects, persons, phenomena, concepts, and substances: a table, a man, snow, friendship, water [ 3 ]. As well as in the Ukrainian language, the noun performs a function of a subject (a girl plays), part of a predicate (he is a doctor), an attribute (English teacher), adverbial modifier (children go to school). Nouns are divided into proper and common nouns in both languages. Nouns are divided into countable: a car – many cars, a girl – two girls, a book – books, and uncountable: love, air, freedom, peace. Countable nouns have plural and singular forms. The plural form is made by adding -s to the corresponding noun. We add an ending -es if the noun ends in -ch, -x, -sh, -ss, -o. There are some irregular forms: a piano – two pianos, a photo – photos, a radio – radios. The f is often changed to -ve before adding the -s to form the plural form if the noun ends with -fe or f, e.g., a knife – knives, a wife – wives, a wolf – wolves, a life – lives. Exceptions are a roof – roofs, a chief – chiefs. If a singular noun ends in -y and the letter before the -y is a consonant, then the ending is changed into -ies to make the noun plural, e.g., a story – stories, a city – cities, a factory – factories. If the singular noun ends in -y and the letter before is a vowel, only -s is added to make it plural: a key – keys, a day – days, a play – play. Irregular nouns follow no specific rules and change a root vowel: a foot – feet, a mouse – mice, a tooth – teeth, a woman – women, a man – men. Some nouns preserve an old English ending in the plural: a child – children, an ox – oxen, a chick – chicken. Some English nouns are only used in singular: advice, information, news, knowledge, furniture, money, weather and others. Other nouns are used only in the plural: goods, trousers, scissors, clothes, and others. Some collective nouns are used only in the singular form (preserving the plural meaning): police, cattle, people and others. If the word “people” means nation, it has singular and plural forms. Family names in the plural form are used with the definite article and denote each family member, for example, the Browns, (the family of Brown), the Kovalenkos (the family of Kovalenko).

Possessive case. Nouns in English have only two issues: nominative (Victor, father) and possessive (Victor’s school, father’s work) [ 3 ]. The possessive case shows ownership. A noun can change from a simple place, person, or thing to a place, person, or thing that owns something with the addition of ’s (or sometimes just the apostrophe). In the Ukrainian language, it corresponds to the genitive case that also expresses possession. The possessive case of nouns is formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s (-’s) to the singular noun form in the general case and an apostrophe (-’) to the plural noun form. And sometimes to the singular nouns ending in -s or -x (except for the noun child – children, child’s – children’s): a girl+’s = a girl’s hat (a hat which a girl owns); Victor+‘s=Victor’s book (a book which Victor has); an actress +’s = an actress’s role (a role performed by an actress); girls+’ = girls’ hats (hats which girls have). The apostrophe or an apostrophe and an s are added: James’s car or James’ car (a car that James has), if a proper name ends with an –s. The possessive case is used when a possessor is a person or an animal (a boy’s name, a cat’s tail), name of the organization, country, city, time (a company’s success, Ukraine’s population, London’s theatres, Sunday’s newspaper). The pronunciation of ending -’s follows the same rules as for the plural forms of nouns [ 3 ].

Pronouns, which are used to connect the main and subordinate clauses.

A form of a verb, often ending in "-ed" or "-ing" and used with auxiliary verbs to make

verb tenses or to form adjectives (a sleeping boy, a written text).

English Direct order of words (A

boy broke a cup).

A direct order of words (Does he speak English

or Spanish?).

There are three degrees of comparison: the Positive degree, the Comparative degree, and the Superlative degree (smaller than,

most expensive).

A direct order of words (This is the book, which I

bought yesterday).

Relative pronouns are who, whom, that,

which, whose.

A participle is a nonfinite form of an English verb with the features of a verb, an adverb, and an adjective. In the Ukrainian language, the

English participle corresponds to participle forms and verb + adverb.

Language

Ukrainian

The word order is not direct: Khlopchyk rozbyv chashku or Chashku rozbyv khlopchyk (A boy broke a cup or A cup was broken by

a boy).

Word order is loose: Vin hovoryt anhliiskoiu chy ispanskoiu? or Hovoryt vin

anhliiskoiu chy ispanskoiu?(Does he speak

English or Spanish?).

There are two degrees of

comparison: the comparative degree (smachnishyi – tastier), and

the superlative degree (naismachnishyi – tastiest).

The word order is loose (Tse knyha, yaku ya kupyv vchora or Tse knyha, yaku

vchora ya kupyv).

They are what, who, how much, what, whose, which.

Active participle indicates an ongoing or completed action or state in the active voice. A noun modified by the participle is taken to represent the agent of the action denoted by the verb: palaiuche nebo (burning sky). Passive participle indicates an ongoing or completed action or state in the passive voice. A noun modified by the participle represents the patient of the action denoted by the Participle I (Present Participle)

Participle II (Past Participle)

Verb

It has two forms: Present Participle Simple, which corresponds to Ukrainian participle of the present time, and Past Participle Perfect, which corresponds both to

Ukrainian participle of the past and a verb, which shows

an incomplete action.

It corresponds to the Past

Participle in Ukrainian. The passive voice of the participle in the Ukrainian language is formed of the infinitive of transitive verbs, which denote complete/incomplete action by adding suffixes -t (yi), -n (yi), -en (yi), -ien (yi): myty (to wash) – mytyi (washed), napysaty (to write) – napysanyi (written).

A word or phrase shows an action or state (Children play

in the yard. He loves his children.). English verbs, as well as Ukrainian ones, denote feelings (to hear, to like), an process (to sleep, to rest), action (to go, to build), mental activity (to think, to realize).

Some English verbs consist of two words: to whitewash, to browbeat, to machine-gun, others coincide in the form of a noun (to record – a record) or an adjective (less common).

The Present Participle Active is formed with the suffix -ing and is used to create the progressive tenses (Reading the book, he makes notes). It is translated into

Ukrainian as the participle of the active

voice.

Past Participle expresses completed action, which is traditionally one of the verb's principal parts, and that is usually used in English to form perfect tenses in the active voice and of all tenses in the passive voice break-brokebroken (a broken cup). It

is translated into Ukrainian as the past

participle.

The verbs are divided into modal verbs, verbs denoting senses of perception, phrasal verbs and irregular

verbs. Verbs are categorized as simple,

derivative, and compound. Simple verbs consist of one non-derivative base: to try, to go, to speak, to

run, and others.

Derivative verbs have suffixes or prefixes: to organize, rewrite, to

discover, to mispronounce. A compound verb or complex predicate is a multi-word compound that functions as a single verb. They are formed of two parts – a verb and a particle or preposition, which are written separately and can be separated by other words: to stand verb: posiiane zhyto (sown

rye).

Present Participle Active is formed from the present

tense of transitive and intransitive verbs with the suffixes-uch (yi), -yuch (yi)

for verbs of the 1st conjugation and -ach (yi), yach (yi) for verbs of the 2nd conjugation: reve – revychyi (to roar – roaring), pratsuye – pratsuyuchiy (to

work – working).

Past Participle Active is formed from the infinitive of intransitive verbs only

with the suffix -l (iy): zamerznuty – zamerzlyi (to freeze – frozen), pobility – pobililyi (to whiten –

whitened).

The verb has five forms in the Ukrainian language.

These forms are recognized by their characteristic endings: 1) indefinite form (infinitive); 2) personal forms: (vin) pysh-е, pysa-vØ, napysh-е, bude + pysaty, pysaty-me, pysa-v-Ø + by, khai + pysh-e; 3) participle: pozhovti-l-yi, posyvi-l-yi; pysa-n-yi, pidpysa-n-yi; zaliubl-en-yi, bach-en-yi; vymy-t-yi, kolot-yi. Active Participle is uncommon in the Ukrainian language pyshuchyi (writing). This function is performed by descriptive constructions: shcho/yakyi pyshe (that /which writes); 4) impersonal forms ending in -no/-to: napysa-no, zroble-no, prozhy-to, vypyto; 5) diiepryslivnyk (verb + adverb): pysh-uchy, liublyachy, pidpysa-vshy, poliuby-vshy.

Object

Yes/No questions Pronouns Negative sentence Reflexive pronouns

Noun Attributuve noun

The indicative mood is used for positive beliefs and factual statements. Indicative-mood verbs function in many tenses

and forms.

A noun phrase or a noun is affected by the verb action, or

that follows a preposition.

Additionally, almost any group

of words that functions as a noun can be an object, such as noun clauses, gerunds, noun

phrases, and infinitives.

A general question the answer

to which is Yes or No.

A word is used instead of a noun phrase or a noun (A boy

reads books – He reads books). Pronouns are divided

into several categories according to their linguistic meaning and morphological

features.

A sentence with a particle not

(He does not speak English.

We do not like classical music).

A personal pronoun compounded with -self to show that the agent's action affects the agent (She dressed

herself).

A name (Robert), person or thing (a teacher, a table), action (a conversation).

A noun that modifies another noun and functions as an up, to sit down, to go away, to put on, and others. Compound verbs are very common in English. The endings are added to the base: I am writing down your

address. Не always wakes up at 7 o'clock.

Indicative mood shows

that the action is considered a fact in the future, past or present

tense.

An object is a noun (or pronoun) that is governed by a preposition or a verb.

There are three kinds of thing: direct object (I know him), indirect object (Give her the prize), an object of a preposition (Sit with them). The object can be expressed by gerund,

pronoun, a noun, infinitive, or the whole

subordinate clause (They ask me to help. I

can see a bus.).

Direct word order in a

sentence.

English pronouns are divided into several

categories: interrogative, demonstrative, possessive, reciprocal, reflexive, indefinite, personal, and relative.

Direct word order in a

sentence.

Reflexive pronouns are words like myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and

themselves.

It is not declined according to the gender

of the noun.

It is applicable in the language.

The meaning of the past

and present tense is accurate, and the purpose

of the future is hypothetical to express

some desired action.

The object has the same parts of speech as the

subject.

The word order is not

direct.

Ukrainian pronouns have nine categories: personal, reflexive, interrogative,

relative, possessive, demonstrative, definite, indefinite, and negative.

The word order is loose.

The reflexive pronoun is

sebe (self).

It is declined according to the gender of the noun. Adverbs of

number Short answers Plural forms

Modality adjective: a stone bridge (a bridge made of stone).

A base verb form

Refers to an adverb that signifies how many times an action is performed or in what numerical order it is

performed.

Positive short answers are formed with yes + subject + auxiliary verb, and negative answers with no + subject + negated auxiliary verb. (Who

came? – Mike did).

More than one (girls, men, children, rooms). See Singular

forms Modality is about a speaker’s or a writer’s attitude towards the world. A writer or speaker can express necessity, obligation, willingness, possibility, certainty, and ability by using expressions

and modal words.

Superlative adjectives describe one person or thing as having more quality than all other people or something in a group.

An infinitive is formed from a verb but does not act as a verb. It is usually used with a particle to (He likes to write letters) or without it (I made her read).

It is a word indicating

the quantity of something: many, much, some, any.

Direct word order in a

sentence.

It is formed by adding -s to the nouns except the forms of irregular plural

nouns.

Modal verbs are needn’t, need, ought to,

must, should, shall, would, will, might, may, could, can, used to. the largest, the most important Imperative clauses

Imperative clauses most commonly function as instructions, commands, or orders.

It has a direct word order (Open the book!

Do not smoke!).

We add ending -ty to the stem of the verb: pysa-ty (to write), hovory-ty (to speak), lita-ty (to fly), hrymi-ty (to thunder), merznu-ty (to frost), dyvuva-ty (to wonder).

It answers the questions: How? Where? How much?

A question is anything we write or say which requires a response. There are four types of questions in English: choice questions, particular questions using wh-words, general or yes/no questions, and disjunctive or tag/tail

questions.

Subject questions are used to ask who or which person or thing does something (Who

rode the train to work?).

Subject questions follow the same subject-verb structure as

statements.

It is the word or phrase, which controls the verb in the clause, that is to say with which the

verb agrees.

They are the verbs: feel, hear, look, smell, taste, sound.

Most verbs in English are regular. Regular verbs add -ing to the base form to make the ing form, and -ed to the base

They function as exceptions because of having only singular or

plural form.

An irregular verb does not form its simple past

tense or its past participle by adding –d or -ed to the base form: to be – was/were –

been.

It is used only with an

article.

Have a direct word

order.

Singular first-person pronouns include I, me; second person – you; third person – he, she,

it, one.

We make the passive by

putting the verb into whatever tense we need and adding the past participle: to be+ Past Participle (A cup was

broken).

A direct word order.

It has a direct word order (Who came late?

– Jack did.)

We are happy.

A car has two doors.

They have some syntactical feateres of

usage.

In English, we add -ed or -d to the base form of the verb to create the

They function as exceptions because of having only singular or

plural form.

It is not specified.

It does not have an article. form to make the past simple and the -ed form. See Irregular

verbs.

Prepositions are used to show a relationship in space or time

or a logical connection between two or more people,

places or things.

They give us more information about animals, people, or

things represented by pronouns and nouns. See

Degrees of comparison.

There are a few different ways to form the noun possessive.

We use possessive pronouns

in place of a noun.

We use adverbs to add more

information about an adjective, a verb, another adverb, a clause or a whole sentence and, less commonly,

about a noun phrase.

Quantifiers include the words like enough, fairly, hardly,

quite, rather.

It is a verb tense category. It

covers the simple present tense, the simple past tense, and the simple future tense.

The three indefinite tenses express facts or habitual

activities.

There are four main types of

sentence: affirmative, interrogative, imperative,

exclamative.

A phrase, which is added to a sentence for emphasis, or to turn it into a question, usually gets agreement or check

information.

A sentence makes a statement or states a fact (He speaks English. He does not speak English. We like classical music).

past forms: play – played – played They are: under, to, on, in, at, near (at home, on

Wednesday, in the

street).

It does not change in number, gender and case (a long holiday, a happy end, a tall boy).

With the addition of ’s (or sometimes just the apostrophe), a noun can change from a simple place, person, or thing to a place, person, or thing that owns something: John’s

father.

They are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.

He speaks slowly.

They are applicable in the language (The film

was quite good).

They dance well. He

lived in Kyiv.

The word order is

direct.

It is applicable. (He speaks English, does not he? He does not speak

English, does he?).

The word order is direct.

The meaning of prepositions in the Ukrainian language does not coincide with the ones

in English.

It changes in the number,

gender and case.

The word forms differ only in respect of inflections: mama- mam-yn, tato –

tato-vyi.

They are mii (mine), tvii (your), yoho (his), yii (hers), nash (ours), yikhnii (theirs).

Vin hovoryt povilno (He

speaks slowly).

Applicable in the language.

Noun acts as a subject of a sentence (A boy plays), an object (I have a book), a predicate complement (My brother is a doctor), an adjective or modifier of another noun (a stone house), adverbial modifier (together with a preposition Victor is in London) [ 3 ]. Nouns are divided into proper and common. Proper nouns include the names of people (Kovalenko, Bill, Victor), geographical names (England, Lviv, Konotop), names of streets, newspapers, magazines, etc. In fact, English proper nouns almost fully coincide with the corresponding nouns in the Ukrainian language. It should be noted that days of the week, months, nationalities, etc., are written in capital letters.

Pronoun is a word that substitutes a noun phrase or noun. There are a few different types of pronouns: personal (I, we, you, they, he, she, it), possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and indefinite pronouns. Let us consider the categories of the following pronouns: personal, possessive and demonstrative [ 3 ]. Personal pronouns act as subject (I, we, you, they, he, she, it) and object (me, us, you, them, him, her, it) pronouns. There are two types of possessive pronouns: possessive determiners and possessive pronouns. We use possessive determiners before a noun: my (mii, moia, moie, moi), our (nash, nasha, nashe, nashi), your (tvii, tvoia, tvoie, tvoi, vash, vasha, vashe, vashi), their (yikhnii, yikhnia, yikhnie), his (yoho), her (yii), its (yikh). We use possessive pronouns in place of a noun: mine (mii, moia, moie, moi), ours (nash, nasha, nashe, nashi), yours (tvii, tvoia, tvoie, tvoi, vash, vasha, vashe, vashi), theirs (yikhnii, yikhnia, yikhnie), his (yoho), hers (yii), its (yikh). In the following sentences, the pronouns function as object pronouns, subject pronouns and possessive determiners: I give him my book/You give us your book/We give them our book/She gives you her book/He gives me his book/They give her their book. Demonstrative pronouns are pronouns that point to specific objects. They take the place of a noun phrase, activity, noun, or situation. They always consist of those, that, these, this (Table 4) [ 3 ].

Adjectives are four major word classes and verbs, nouns, and adverbs [ 3 ]. They give us more content about animals, people, or things represented by pronouns and nouns. They describe or modify the features and qualities of animals, people, and things. Adjectives in English do not change in cases, numbers or genders. Adjectives are divided into simple adjectives (good, cold, young), derivative (international, important, beautiful), and compound (time-consuming, well-organized). According to the meaning, adjectives are divided into relative (a brick wall, a wooden table) and descriptive adjectives (cold, beautiful). Descriptive adjectives are used to provide more information to a noun by describing or modifying it. They have degrees of comparisons and are complimented with an adverb (very, quite, so, too, rather, etc.). To form the degrees of comparison, we use the suffixes -er, -est; add the words more, or change the word.

1. To form the comparative and superlative degree of one syllable or two-syllable adjectives (ending in -y, -le, -er, -ow), we use the –er/-est suffix. We normally use the before a superlative adjective (Table 5). Two-syllable adjectives ending in consonant+y change y to i and take the -er and -est endings (busy – busier – (the) busiest). One-syllable adjectives ending in short vowel+consonant double the consonant after adding -er/-est (big – bigger – (the) biggest). Adjectives ending in -e add only -r/st to make comparative or superlative degree (simple – simpler – (the) simplest) [ 3 ]. 2. Adjectives of two (not ending in -er, -le, -y, -ow) or more syllables form the superlative with most/least and the comparative with more/less (Table 6) [ 3 ].

To show the diminishing degree, we use the words less, the least (Table 7) [ 3 ]. 3. Some adjectives have irregular forms (Table 8) [ 3 ]. The adjective little used in the meaning of small (a little girl) forms degrees of comparisons as following: the smallest girl, a small girl. The adjective old has forms elder, the eldest when it concerns family members. 4. When comparing the qualities of two objects, we use than (ніж [nizh]) after the adjective in comparative degree: In winter, the days are shorter than the nights.

5. To avoid repetition of the name of the same object, we use the word one: This room is larger than that one.

6. To compare two objects of the same quality, an adjective in the positive degree is used, and it is placed between the conjunctions not as… as, as… as: This book is not as interesting as that one. This book is as interesting as that one. (Table 9) [ 3 ].

Verbs are one of the four major word classes and nouns, adjectives, and adverbs [ 3 ]. A verb refers to an action (to play – hraty), event or state (to love – kohaty). Verbs are divided into simple verbs (to do – robyty, to speak – rozmovliaty, to tell – rozpovidaty, etc), derivative verbs which are formed with prefixes and suffixes (to dislike – ne podobatysia, to widen – rozshyriuvaty, and others), and compound verbs – made up of one or more words (to babysit – dohliadaty ditei, to whitewash – bilyty, etc.). English verb is used in different tenses to talk or write about different times. The system of English tenses has common and different features in comparison with the Ukrainian one. As in the Ukrainian language, English has a very extensive system of grammatical tenses. In some cases, they may coincide in some ways in both languages, and in others – differ in both form and meaning. It is the last factor – the tense differences that causes considerable difficulties in learning English grammar. First, the base form of the verb is infinitive, and it is common in both languages, but the differences between them are significant. In the Ukrainian language, there is one form of the infinitive (buty – to be, maty – to have, spodivatysia – to hope, chytaty – to read, rozmovliaty – to speak, chuty – to hear, strybaty – to jump) while in English, there are six forms of the infinitive. As in the Ukrainian language, all other verb forms are made from the infinitive. Verb forms express person, number, tense, state, mode of action and function as a predicate. According to the meaning and their functioning in the sentence, English verbs are divided into notional, auxiliary, modal and linking verbs (Table 10) [ 3 ].

Linking verbs are verbs that serve as a connection between a subject and further information about that subject.

to be (buty), to do (robyty), to have (maty), to speak (rozmovliaty), to jump (strybaty), to read (chytaty)

and others. to be (buty), to get (otrymuvaty), to become (stavaty), to grow (rosty) and others.

The main forms of the verb are [3]:

1. The infinitive, e.g. work, take; 2. The past form, e.g. worked, took; 3. The past participle, e.g. worked, taken; 4. The -ing form, e.g. working, taking; 5. The third-person singular present simple e.g. works, takes.

In English, there are twelve tenses; verbs come in three tenses: future, present, and past. English verbs also have a special form called future-in-the-past, which shows a future action from the past.

The simple present tense is one of several forms of the present tense in English. It is used to describe fixed arrangementsб general truths, unchanging situations, and habits. The simple present tense is formed out of the base form of the verb: I take, you take, we take, and they take. The third-person singular takes an -s at the end: he takes, she takes. Verbs ending in consonant + y change the -y to -ies in the third person: she cries (vona krychyt); but if there is vowel + y no changes occur: he plays (vin hraie). The following time expressions are used in the present simple: often, always, every day, every week, every month, every year, etc. The pronunciation and spelling rules of the ending -s/es are the same as for the plural nouns [ 3 ]:

We read newspapers every day (My chytaiemo hazety shchodnia [Ми читаємо газети щодня]).

She speaks English (Vona rozmovliaie anhliiskoiu [Вона розмовляє англійською]). The earth rotates round the sun (Zemlia obertaietsia navkolo Sontsia [Земля обертається навколо Сонця]).

The simple past is a verb tense used to talk about things that happened or existed before now. It shows that you are talking about something that has already happened. Regular verbs form past simple tense by adding -ed to the root form of the verb (or just -d if the root form already ends in an -e). We should remember the records of irregular verbs: speak – spoke, buy – bought, write – wrote. Time expressions used with the past simple are a year ago, a month ago, a week ago, last year, last month, last week, yesterday, in 2021 [ 3 ].

Future Simple tense is used when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the future simple with the modal auxiliary will. The structure of the future simple tense is subject + auxiliary will + main verb: They will come tomorrow. Time expressions used with the future simple: in 2025, in a week, next year, next month, next week, tomorrow, and others. (They will come tomorrow.) present simple and present continuous is used to refer to events in the future [ 3 ]: 1. They are facts, or because there is a clear or fixed schedule or timetable: He goes to Kyiv tomorrow (Vin yide do Kyieva zavtra [Він їде до Києва завтра]). 2. They are a part of conditional sentences of time and consession: If you buy this book, show it to me (Yakshcho vy kupyte tsiu knyzhku, pokazhit yii meni [Якщо ви купите цю книжку, покажіть її мені]).

The mood is the form a verb takes to show how it is to be regarded (e.g., as an uncertaintyб, a wish, a command, a fact). English has indicative, imperative, and subjunctive moods; other moods, such as the conditional, do not appear as morphologically distinct forms [ 3 ].

1. An indicative mood is a verb form that makes a statement or asks a question. The vast majority of verbs in sentences are in the indicative mood. It shows that the action is real to occur in the present, past or future: Peter speaks English (Piter rozmovliaie anhliiskoiu [Пітер розмовляє англійською]); Peter spoke English (Piter rozmovliav anhliiskoiu [Пітер розмовляв англійською]); Peter will speak English (Piter rozmovliatyme anhliiskoiu [Пітер розмовлятиме англійською]). 2. Imperative mood most commonly functions as commands, instructions or orders. We do not usually include the subject in an imperative clause. We use the base form of the verb: Read! (Chytai! [Читай!] or Chytaite! [Читайте!]). In modern English, there is only one form for the second person singular and plural. The Ukrainian translation of imperatives depends on the person the action is addressed to. In Ukrainian, we will say Chytai! in second-person singular, and if we address the action to an older or unfamiliar person or more than one person, then we will say Chytaite! 3. Conditional sentences consider imagined or uncertain situations and the possible results of these situations. The most common types of conditional sentences involve if/when. The subjunctive mood shows a wish, suggestion, demand, or condition contrary to fact. This type of sentences in Ukrainian is used with the particle by: Yakby ya znav (If I knew [Якби я знав…]), Vin pishov by…, yakby (He would go … if… [Він пішов би…, якби…]).

Verb Types. English verbs are divided into notional, auxiliary, modal and linking verbs (Table 11). must, may, can, would, will, should, shall, to have to, to be to, need to, ought to

A verb can also be described as intransitive or transitive based on whether it requires an object to express a complete thought or not. A transitive verb is the one that only makes sense if it exerts its action on an object: to buy, to read, to ask etc.: I asked them. An intransitive verb will make sense without one: to live, to go, to work, and others: He goes home. Some verbs may use both ways: to move, to stop, to open (He stopped at once. He stopped a taxi.)[ 3 ].

In English grammar, as well as in Ukrainian, the two grammatical voices are active and passive. Active voice means that a sentence has a subject that acts upon its verb: I asked him (Ya zapytav yoho [Я запитав його]). Passive voice means that an issue is a recipient of a verb’s action: I was asked (Mene zapytaly [Мене запитали]). Most regular verbs use the root form in the simple present, except in the third-person singular (which ends in -s). The simple past tense and the past participle are formed depending on whether the verb is regular or irregular.

Regular past simple and past participle forms are formed by adding -ed to the infinitive of the verb: to open – opened – opened; to want – wanted – wanted. However, there are some spelling rules [ 3 ]: 1. If a verb ends in a consonant and -y, you take off the -y and add -ied: to cry – cried – cried. However, if the word ends in a vowel and -y, you add -ed. (to play – played – played).

Affirmative forms

Interrogative forms

Negative forms

I, we, you, they He, she, it write

Do writes Does

I, we, you, they he, she, it write? write?

I, we, you, they He, she, it do not (don’t)

write does not (doesn’t) write

Verbs to be and modals (can, may, must) form negative forms, interrogative and negative interrogative forms without an auxiliary verb. The verb to have makes these forms both with and without the auxiliary verbs (Table 12). In the past simple we form questions and negative interrogative forms with the verb did (do in the past) + the infinitive (Table 13) [ 3 ]. In English, it is pretty difficult to process these rules. However, the more detailed they are, the easier it is to program. It is complicated to automate the texts when there are many rules, exceptions and patterns. Let us give you an example. The verb to run [rʌn] is an irregular one and has the following three forms in English: run, ran, run. Its translation into Ukrainian has14 options [ 3 ]:

бігати [bihaty], бігти [bihty], гнати [hnaty], тікати [tikaty], котитися [kotytysya], ковзати [kovzaty], слідувати [sliduvaty], рухатися [rukhatysya], курсувати [kursuvaty], здійснювати втечу [zdiysnyuvaty vtechu], протікати [protikaty], відбуватися [vidbuvatysya], миготіти [myhotity], проноситься [pronosytʹsya].

The verb to run has many shades of meaning, so we will try to classify single-root words according to their part of speech. Depending on the sentence structure, only the first meaning of the word to run [rʌn] has 36 choices of the appropriate verb form in the Ukrainian language and 60 variants in the Russian language (Table 15). It means that about 14 meanings of the verb to run [rʌn] may lead to about 500 options of its translation [ 3 ].

бігаючи [bihayuchy] біжить [bizhytʹ] біжучи [bizhuchy] бігаючи [bihayuchy] бігши [bihshy] бегая [begaya] бежит [bezhit] бегучи [beguchi] бегающий [begayushchiy] бегающая [begayushchaya] бегающее [begayushcheye] бегающие [begayushchiye] бегающего [begayushchego] бегающей [begayushchey] бегающих [begayushchikh] бегающему [begayushchemu] бегающим [begayushchim] бегающую [begayushchuyu] бегающею [begayushcheyu] бегающими [begayushchimi] бегающем [begayushchem] бегавший [begavshiy] бегавшая [begavshaya] бегавшее [begavsheye] бегавшие [begavshiye] бегавшего [begavshego] бегавшей [begavshey] бегавших [begavshikh] бегавшему [begavshemu] бегавшим [begavshim] бегавшую [begavshuyu] бегавшею [begavsheyu] бегавшими [begavshimi] бегавшем [begavshem]

In addition, the main forms of the verb to run have about a dozen of less used meanings of the word in the Ukrainian language, for example [ 3 ]: вбігати [vbihaty], вибігати [vybihaty], добігати [dobihaty], забігати [zabihaty], набігати [nabihaty], оббігати [obbihaty], відбігати [vidbihaty], перебігати [perebihaty], побігати [pobihaty], підбігати [pidbihaty], пробігати [probihaty], збігати [zbihaty], вбігти [vbihty], вибігти [vybihty], добігти [dobihty], забігти [zabihty], набігти [nabihty], відбігти [vidbihty], перебігти [perebihty], прибігти [prybihty], підбігти [pidbihty], пробігти [probihty], забігати [zabihaty], набігатися [nabihatysya], пробігтися [probihtysya], розбігтися [rozbihtysya], збігтися [zbihtysya], убігати [ubihaty].

Moreover, each word has about 38 variants of forms depending on the sentence structure and context (more than 1000 word forms). However, translating the word to run into Ukrainian may take the meaning of a noun, adjective, adverb, participle and a separate compound word. What is more, the noun and adjective have their form of declension (7 cases in Ukrainian), for example [ 3 ]:  Noun: біг [bih], бігання [bihannya], біганина [bihanyna], бігун [bihun], бігунка [bihunka], біженець [bizhenetsʹ], біженка [bizhenka], біженство [bizhenstvo], вибіг [vybih], вибігання [vybihannya], забіг [zabih], забігайлівка [zabihaylivka], забігання [zabihannya], набіг [nabih], набігання [nabihannya], перебігання [perebihannya], перебіжчик [perebizhchyk], перебіжчиця [perebizhchytsya], побігайчик [pobihaychyk], побігеньки [pobihenʹky], пробіг [probih], пробіжка [probizhka], перебігання [perebihannya], розбіг [rozbih], розбіжка [rozbizhka], збігання [zbihannya].  Adjective: побіжний [pobizhnyy], біговій [bihoviy], біженський [bizhensʹkyy], набіганий [nabihanyy], збіганий [zbihanyy], вибіганий [vybihanyy], забіганий [zabihanyy], пробіганий [probihanyy], перебіганий [perebihanyy], розбіганий [rozbihanyy].  Adverb: побіжно [pobizhno], бігом [bihom], перебіжкою [perebizhkoyu], набігом [nabihom], набігу [nabihu], забігом [zabihom], вибіганням [vybihannyam], забігом [zabihom], набіганням [nabihannyam], перебіганням [perebihannyam], перебіжчиком [perebizhchykom], пробігом [probihom], розбігом [rozbihom], збігом [zbihom].  Verb (extra shades of meaning are developed with the help of various prefixes): вбігати [vbihaty] – вбігаючи [vbihayuchy], вибігати [vybihaty] – вибігаючи [vybihayuchy], розбігтися [rozbihtysya] – розбігаючись [rozbihayuchysʹ], etc.  Compoud words of different speech parts: автопробіг [avtoprobih], велопробіг [veloprobih], мотопробіг [motoprobih], etc.

Article. English has two types of papers: definite the, and indefinite а/an. They are a determiner type, and they go before a noun [ 3 ].

The definite article limits the meaning of a noun to one particular thing. The before a noun shows that what is referred to is already known to the listener, speaker, reader and/or writer. The definite article can be used with singular, plural, or uncountable nouns.

Definite article is used before [ 3 ]: 1. Nouns that are preceded by: a) Cardinal numbers – He was the first to come. (Він прийшов першим [Vin pryishov pershym]); b) An adjective in the superlative degree – This is the most beautiful flower. (Це найкрасивіша квітка [Tse naikrasyvisha kvitka]);

c) An adjective following, same, next, last: Answer the following questions (Дайте відповіді на такі питання [Daite vidpovidi na taki pytannia]).

But: next door (сусідній будинок [susidnii budynok], сусідня кімната [susidnia kimnata]), next week/month, summer, year, Sunday (наступного тижня [nastupnoho tyzhnya], misiatsia [місяця], літа [lita], року [roku], неділі [nedili]), last week/month, year, Saturday (минулого тижня [mynuloho tyzhnia], misiatsia [місяця], року [roku], суботи [suboty]) and others [ 3 ].

2. The is used with singular and plural nouns, countable and uncountable ones, to talk about something specific, or when the noun is mentioned for the second time: This is the man I told you about. (Це чоловік, про якого я вам розповідав [Tse cholovik, pro yakoho ya vam rozpovidav]).

3. We use the for the things known to everyone (the earth, the moon, the stars, the sun, the planet) because they are a part of our physical environment or part of the natural world.

4. In expressions: the other day (днями [dniamy]), on the right (праворуч [pravoruch]), on the left (ліворуч [livoruch]), in the afternoon (після обіду [pislia obidu]), in the evening (увечері [uvecheri]), in the morning (вранці [vrantsi]), and others.

5. In expressions the more … the better … (чим більше … тим краще … [chym bilshe … tym krashche …]): The more we learn, the more we know (Chym bilshe my vchymos, tym bilshe my maiemo [Чим більше ми вчимось, тим більше ми маємо]).

6. Names of families: the Browns (сім’я Браунів [simia Brauniv], Брауни [Brauny]). 7. Names of newspapers/magazines and ship: the News from Ukraine, the Daily Mail, the Guardian. 8. Names of nationalities in -ch, -sh, or -ese: the Chinese (китайці [kytaytsi]), the English (англійці [anhliytsi]). Other plural nationalities are used with or without the (the Ukrainians – українці [ukrayintsi], the Americans – американці [amerykantsi]).

9. When we talk about particular groups or people within society, we use the + adjective: the poor (бідні [bidni]), the unemployed (безробітні [bezrobitni]).

10. Groups of states: the USA (США [SShA]), the Netherlands (Нідерланди [Niderlandy]), the United Kingdom (Об’єднане Королівство [Obiednane Korolivstvo]).

11. We use the with mountain ranges and some mountains, names of oceans, seas, rivers, islands groups, deserts: the Dnieper – Дніпро [Dnipro], the Thames – Темза [Temza], the Crimea – Крим [Krym], the Black Sea – Чорне море [Chorne more], the Atlantic Ocean – Атлантичний океан [Atlantychnyy okean], the Gobi Desert, the West Indies.

12. Uncountable nouns when a limited amount is meant: The water is frozen (Вода замерзла [Voda zamerzla]), Give me the bread, please (Дайте мені, будь ласка, хліба [Daite meni, bud laska, khliba]), Water is a liquid (Вода – рідина [Voda – ridyna]).

13. The is used to refer to a class of people, animals or things: The rose is a beautiful flower (Троянда – красива квітка [Troianda – krasyva kvitka]).

Let us consider grammar G1 = (S, V, T, P) by N. Chomsky [50-58] with symbols (to have a convenient identification of syntactic categories, we will omit indexes):  S is the start symbol;  # is sentence boundary symbol;  T = ( # , in, his, most, important, work, he, shows, the, colourful, world, of, Ukrainian, village, its, unique, charm);  V = (Ñ, R , S, N, R, D, А, Q, E, B, # , in, his, most, important, work, he, shows, the, colourful, world, of, Ukrainian, village, its, unique, charm)ю

A set of rules Р is presented in Table 18. 6) ACD  ACDQACD ;

~ 7) N NR,PR  N NpRro,CnSoun;

~ ~ ~ 8) NNR,PR  NNR,PRENNR,PR ; 9) ACD  BACD ;

→

Presentation of IV. categories 4) B  BB ;

~ ~ ~ 5) RNR,PR  RNR,PRNNR,PR ; 6) → , it means that compatibility of the adverb is context dependant.

The meaning of the restriction is that the adverbs of quantity and degree in combination with another adverb mainly function as a pre-position element (most important, so well, almost far) [34]. 1) ACD UkrainianCD (український [ukrainskyi]); 2) ACD  importantCD (важливий [vazhlyvyi]); 3) ACD  colourfulCD (барвистий [barvystyi]); 4) ACD  uniqueCD (неповторний [nepovtornyi]); 5) N NR,CS  workNR,CS (робота [robota]); 6) N NR,CS  worldNR,CS (світ [svit]); 7) N NR,CS  villageNR,CS (село [selo]); 8) N NR,CS  charmNR,CS (привабливість [pryvablyvist]); 9) D  the (означений артикль [definite article]); 10) RNR,PR,TM  showNR,PR,TM (показувати [pokazuvaty]); 11) → 12) Q  and (і [e]);

(найбільш [naibilsh]); 13) B  important (важливо [vazhlyvo]); 14) N NpRro,CnSoun  heNR,CS (він [vin]); 15) E  in (в [v]); 16) E  of (для [dlia]); 17) N NpRro,CnSoun  it NR,CS (вона [vona]); 18) N NpRro,CnSoun  it NR,CS (воно [vono]); 19) ACD  itsCD (свій [sviy]); 20) ACD  hisCD (свій [sviy]).

ІІ. The Ukrainian terminal chain identification process [7, 10, 32-33, 36, 38-49]. The sentence is characterized by a loose word though a standard word order is also peculiar for some linguistic elements [19-20]. The structural scheme is fixed for a simple sentence with direct word order, and the principal such sentence syntactic categories are noun and verb groups [69-83]. Enumerable grammar, built on the same principles as in the previous examples, cannot be applied due to its complexity. To develop context-dependent grammar, we introduce certain restrictions, first, on the sentence level. Considering the Ukrainian sentence structure with direct word order (for example, the adjective has a preposition to the noun or the noun group elements are formed around the noun, etc.) [84-86], we will ~ examine a noun group N of the following structural scheme:

N~  N p or N~  {AN} . (7) The adjective and the noun in the noun group agree in case, number and gender [7, 19, 87-99].

~ The verb group R of such a structural scheme is:

R~  RN~ or R~  N~R . (10)

The Ukrainian noun and verb group agree in number, gender and person (Tables 19-20) [100-101].

zaimennyk (pronoun)/ Nзайм, imennyk (noun)/N, prykmetnyk (adjective)/A,

Rid (Gender)/РД Chyslo(Number)/ЧЛ Vidminok (Case)/ВД Osoba (Person)/ОС cholovichyi (masculine)/ч, zhinochyi (feminine)/ж, serednii (neutral)/с;

odnyna (singular)/од, mnozhyna (plural)/мн; nazyvnyi (nominative)/н, rodovyi (genitive)/р, davalnyi (dative)/д, znakhidnyi (accusative)/з, orudnyi (ablative)/о, mistsevyi (locative)/м, klychnyi (vocative)/к;

first-person/1, second-person/2, third-person/3.

Let us consider grammar G2 = (S, V, T, P) by N. Chomsky [50-58] with symbols (to have a convenient identification of syntactic categories, we will omit indexes):  S is start symbol;  # is sentence boundary symbol;  V = (Ñ, R , N, Npron, R, S, А, E , # , u, svii, naibilsh, vazhlyvyi, robota, vin, pokazuvaty, barvystyi, svit, ukrainskyi, selo, v, nepovtornyi, pryvablyvist);  T = ( # , u, svii, naibilsh, vazhlyvyi, robota, vin, pokazuvaty, barvystyi, svit, ukrainskyi, selo, v, nepovtornyi, pryvablyvist);  Rule IV does not include agreement А with an alive subject S in the accusative case.

A set of rules Р is presented in Table 21.

Group

S

Rules S  # NРД,ЧЛ,н,ОС RЧЛ,тп,ОС # . 1) NРД,ЧЛ,ВД,3  AРД,ЧЛ,ВД NРД,ЧЛ,ВД,3 ; 2) NРД ,ЧЛ ,ВД ,3  NРД ,ЧЛ ,ВД ,3 NРД,ЧЛ, р,ОС ;

~ ~ ~ 3) NРД,ЧЛ ,ВД,3  NРД,ЧЛ ,ВД,3NРД,ЧЛ ,м,3 ;

~ ~ 4) NРД,ЧЛ,ВД,3  ENРД,ЧЛ,ВД,3 ; 5) NРД,ЧЛ,ВД,3  NРД,ЧЛ,ВД ; II.

III.

~ N ~ R 6) K1NРД ,ЧЛ ,ВД ,ОС K2  K1NРзаДй,мЧЛ ,ВД ,ОС K2 , where K1 is a symbol other than the symbol AРД ,ЧЛ ,ВД , and K2 – a symbol other than the index symbol ВД   р . Symbols K1 and K2 have contextual limits. The meaning of their introduction is that a personal pronoun should not realize the primary member of the nominal group if it precedes an attribute expressed by an adjective. Or if a noun group in the genitive case follows it (to avoid ambiguous phrases such as prykordonnyi vin or my shvydkosti).

~ ~ 1) RЧЛ,тп,ОС  ENРД,ЧЛ,м,3RЧЛ,тп,ОС ;

~ ~ 2) RЧЛ,тп,ОС  RЧЛ,тп,ОС ENРД,ЧЛ,м,3 3) RЧЛ,тп,ОС  RЧЛ,тп,ОС NРД,ЧЛ,о,ОС . 4) RЧЛ,тп,ОС  RЧЛ,тп,ОС NРД,ЧЛ,з,ОС ; 1) Nж,ЧЛ ,ВД  роботаЧЛ ,ВД , привабливістьЧЛ ,ВД , , where work - робота [robota], charm привабливість [pryvablyvist]; 2) Nч,ЧЛ ,ВД  світЧЛ ,ВД , , where world - світ [svit]; 3) Nс,ЧЛ ,ВД  селоЧЛ ,ВД , , where village - село [selo]; 4) N РзаДй,омд,ВД,1  вінВД , where he - він [vin]; 5) AРД,ЧЛ ,ВД  українськийРД,ЧЛ ,ВД , найбільшийРД,ЧЛ ,ВД , неповторнийРД,ЧЛ ,ВД , , where Ukrainian - український [ukrainskyi], most - найбільший [naibilshyy], unique - неповторний [nepovtornyi]; 6) AРД,ЧЛ ,ВД  свійРД,ЧЛ ,ВД , важливийРД,ЧЛ ,ВД , барвистийРД,ЧЛ ,ВД , , where its - свій [sviy], important - важливий [vazhlyvyi], colourful - барвистий [barvystyi]; 7) E  в, у,, where in - в [v], y [u]; 8) RЧЛ ,тп,ОС  показуватиЧЛ ,тп,ОС ,, where show - показувати [pokazuvaty].

These rules can be used for systems development of keyword identification, text rubrication, machine translation, error correction [102-111], also for human psychological analysis, semantic analysis, etc. [112-131]. In Figure 4, a keyword table is shown where the attribute rub_id describes the rubric to which a particular keyword belongs in a given entry (Table 22).

крос-асемблер/efg [kros-asembler/efg] криптозахищений/V [kryptozakhyshchenyi/V] криптографічний/V [kryptohrafichnyi/V] копірайт/e [kopirait/e] копілефт/e [kopileft/e] конфігуратор/efg [konfihurator/efg]

консоль/ij [konsolʹ/ij] консольний/V [konsolnyi/V] конкатенація/ab [konkatenatsiia/ab]

комутований/V [komutovanyi/V] комбосписок/ab [kombospysok/ab] кодосумісний/V [kodosumisnyi/V] кодогенератор/efg [kodohenerator/efg] курсорний/V [kursornyi/V]

COBOL Cobol/13 coder/2,13 hook/10,23,9,18,13,17

сross/13 compilable/7 compilation/17,1,13 compile/1,17,9,2,10 compiler/2,17

compiler's cross-assembler/3,13,17 crypto-protected/7,21

cryptographic cryptographically cryptography/13,17 copyright/13,17,18,9,10,23

Copyleft/19,18,17 configuration/1,17,13 configure/1,10,17,9,8 console/23,8,10 consoled/7 consoler/13 concatenate/22,17,9,10 switch/10,8,23,13,18,17,9,12

combo/13,17 box/9,18,17,12,23,10,13 list/12,13,18,9,15,10,23,22,17 code/17,2,23,10,12,18,9 code compatible compatible/17,5 compatibleness/13 compatibility/5,13,17

compatibly/5 code/17,2,23,10,12,18,9

generators/1 generator/17,13 cursoriness/17,13

cursorily cursor/9,13,17,10 cursory/16

The attribute flag specifies the properties of this keyword (the language part it belongs to). In thematic dictionaries, each word has its property, for example, it is shown in Table 22, where groups a b c d o describe some nouns for Ukrainian words, A is a verb, and V is an adjective, (Figure 5). In thematic dictionaries, each word has its characteristics, for example, it is shown in Table 22, where numbers 1-23 are numbers of PFX type rules (prefixes, 1-7 rules) and SFX (suffixes and endings, 8-23 rules) and describe some nouns for English words (Fig. 4). For example, the PFX type rules describe as some nouns modification for English words with prefixes: re-(rule PFX 1), de- (rule PFX 2), dis(rule PFX 3), con- (rule PFX 4), in- (rule PFX 5), pro- (rule PFX 6) and un- (rule PFX 7). The SFX type rules describe some nouns modification for English words with suffixes or endings:  -able [^aeiou], -able ee, -able [^aeiou]e (rule SFX 8),  -d e, -ied [^aeiou]y, -ed [^ey], -ed [aeiou]y (rule SFX 9),  -ing e, -ing [^e] (rule SFX 10),  - ieth y, -th [^y] (rule SFX 11),  -ings e, -ings [^e] (rule SFX 12),  -'s (rule SFX 13),  -ment (rule SFX 14),  -ion e, -ication y, -en [^ey] (rule SFX 15),  -iness [^aeiou]y, -ness [aeiou]y, -ness [^y] (rule SFX 16),  -ies [^aeiou]y, -s [aeiou]y, -es [sxzh], -s [^sxzhy] (rule SFX 17),  -r e, -ier [^aeiou]y, -er [aeiou]y, -er [^ey] (rule SFX 18),  -st e, -iest [^aeiou]y, -est [aeiou]y, est [^ey] (rule SFX 19),  -ive e, -ive [^e] (rule SFX 20),  -ly (rule SFX 21),  -ions e, -ications y, -ens [^ey] (rule SFX 22),  -rs e, -iers [^aeiou]y, -ers [aeiou]y, -ers [^ey] (rule SFX 23).

The letters e and y near the suffixes are markers of solutions.

The affix file usually has a * .aff extension and may contain optional attributes. For example, SET to determine the type of a character encoding in affix and dictionary files. TRY specifies the characters to replace English words. REP defines a substitution table to correct multiple characters for English words. PFX and SFX define classes of prefixes and suffixes that are labelled with affixes for English words (https://gist.github.com/tararoys/76417eda6af9e331b587).

In Figure 7, the table of rules of reduction to a word basis is presented. The attribute flag defines the word type (here, it is a noun group, singular). An attribute mask shows the rule of ending identification, an attribute find – the word ending in a nominative case, an attribute repl – the term ending when declining. In square brackets exceptions to the rules are given.

Figure 6:Dictionary of nouns for English words

The first line describes a specific example of the Ukrainian nouns ending in -in alternate with -i -o: SFX a in onu in # zahin zahonu (Д. (Dative case), Р. (Genetive case)) SFX a in onovi in # zahin zahonovi (Д.) SFX a in onom in # zahin zahonom (O.) SFX a in oni in # zahin zahoni (M. (Locative case)) The third line describes a specific example of the Ukrainian nouns ending in -іh alternate with -і -о: SFX a ih ohu ih # batih batohu (Д. (Dative case), Р. (Genetive case)) SFX a ih ohovi ih # batih batohovi (Д.M.) SFX a ih ohom ih # batih batohom (O.) SFX a ih ozi ih # batih batozi (M. (Locative case)) The ninth line describes a specific example of Ukrainian nouns ending in -іd alternate with -і -о: SFX a id odu [^l]id # provid provodu (Д. (Dative case), Р. (Genetive case)) SFX a id odovi [^l]id # provid provodovi (Д. (Dative case)) SFX a id odom [^l]id # provid provodom (O. (Ablative case)) SFX a id odi [^l]id # provid provodi (M.) REP defines a substitution table to correct multiple characters for Ukrainian words, for example: A table of blocked words by a moderator, i.e., words that cannot be keywords, is shown in Figure 8. A table of rubrics is demonstrated in Fig. 9. An example of rules of morphological analysis of Ukrainian adjectives is shown in Figure 10. Negative form prefix:  Adjectives ending in –ий;  Adjectives of the short form in -ен change in the same way as to complete (ясен - ясний...) in masculine gender PFX Z Y 1 PFX Z 0 не. #voice> mute

You cannot use /Y with the /Z flag. The original root of the group /Y are adjectives in comparative degree (не простий/Y, but простіший/Y): PFX Y Y 1 PFX Y 0 най. # голосніший > найголосніший

Identical words with the prefix в- formed out of talks with the prefix у- can create too long lines of word forms, not yet used: PFX X Y 1 PFX X в у в # вбити > убити o The first declension: feminine, masculine and neuter nouns; o The second declension: masculine nouns ending in -ар, -ир are stressed (mixed group in -ар, -ир); o The third declension: masculine nouns with alternation -i –o; o Numerals in -ять, -сят, -сто.  Group II is for nouns that are marked by a flag e f g h: o Nouns of the second declension of the masculine gender with a zero ending; o Nouns of the second declension of the male gender ending in -o.  Group III is for nouns that are marked by a flag i j k: o Nouns of the third declension without alternation; o Nouns of the second declension of the neutral gender ending in -о -а –я; o Nouns of the second declension with the consonant not ending in -і (Locative

case).  Group IV for nouns that are marked by a flag l m n: o Nouns of the third declension with alternation; o Nouns of the fourth declension of the neutral gender ending in -а -я.  Group V for nouns which are marked by a flag p: o Patronymics of the masculine (ч.) singular (o.) and plural (м.); o Patronymics of the feminine (ж.) singular (o.).

We will describe each marked group of a set of rules in more detail with the indication of their total number. More than 1 200 rules for processing suffixes and endings are used for morphological analysis of Ukrainian nouns taking into account the alternation of letters.

 SFX a Y 235 rules # Singular: o The first declension is feminine, masculine and neuter nouns. o The second declension: masculine nouns ending in -ар, -ир are stressed (mixed group in -ар, -ир). o The second declension: masculine nouns with alternation -i -o.

o Numerals in -ять, -сят, -сто.  SFX b Y 365 rules # Plural o The first declension is feminine, masculine and neuter nouns. o The second declension: masculine nouns ending in -ар, -ир are stressed (mixed group in -ар, -ир). o The second declension: masculine nouns with alternation -i -o.

o Nouns ending is in -и in the plural form.  SFX c Y 53 rules: o Nouns is the second declension, which in the genitive singular have the ending -a. o In the genitive case, the singular ending -a have masculine nouns:  Names of persons and beings: entrant (абітурієнт – абітурієнта), horse

(кінь – коня), mosquito (комар – комара), Dmitry (Дмитро – Дмитра);  Countable nouns: notebook (зошит – зошита), knife (ніж – ножа),

pencil (олівець – олівця);  Cities: Uzhhorod (Ужгород – Ужгорода), Ternopil (Тернопіль –

Тернополя);  Rivers (with a stressed ending): Dnipro (Дніпро – Дніпра), Donets (Донець

– Дінця);  Names of length, area, weight, volume, time intervals: meter (метр – метра), gram (грам – грама), week (тиждень – тижня), but year (рік – року), age (вік – віку);  Terms: atom (атом – атома), square (квадрат – квадрата), case

(відмінок – відмінка);

Names of buildings and their parts: greenhouse (парник – парника), corridor (коридор – коридора), garage (гараж – гаража).

SFX o Y 52 rules # Plural: o The first declension: nouns of feminine, masculine, and neuter gender with alternation in o/i and the appearance of o (e) in the genitive case plural; o The second declension is nouns of the neutral gender in -o with alternation in o/i in the genitive case plural.

SFX d Y 40 rules: o Exclamatory case; o First conjugation (for endings [ая]); o Second conjugation is for endings [rngdblvk] with alternating o/i and dropping e/o. SFX e Y 19 # Singular: o Hard group of nouns ending in -o; o Hard group of nouns without an ending; o Hard group of nouns ending in hushing consonants; o The mixed group of nouns ending in quelling consonants; o Soft group of nouns ending in -й -ій; o A quiet group of nouns ending in –ь; SFX f Y 24 rules # Plural and Singular (in gr. e): o Nouns of the second declension of masculine gender without an ending, or ending in -o; o Nouns ending in -ок which drop -o and change into -a.

SFX g Y 3:

o The genitive case is the second declension ending in-a.

SFX h Y 4: o Second conjugation (required for endings of consonants other than ЙЖЧШЩ); o Nouns of the second masculine declension without an end.

SFX i Y 47 rules # Singular: o Nouns of the third feminine declension without an ending; o Nouns of the third declension without alternation; o Nouns of the second declension of the neutral gender ending in -o -a –I; o Nouns of the second declension with the consonant not ending -i in the Locative case.

SFX j Y 65 rules # Plural: o Nouns in the plural form * m, * e; o Nouns of the third declension, feminine gender, without an ending; o Nouns of the second declension of the neutral gender ending in -o -a –I; o Nouns ending in -[ії]сть change into –a; o Nouns of the third declension without alternation; o Nouns of the second declension with a consonant not ending in -i in the Locative case.

SFX k Y 8: o Exclamations; o Nouns of the third feminine declension without an ending; o Singular feminine nouns modified out of an adjective.

SFX l Y 39 rules # Singular: o Nouns of the third declension with alternation; o Nouns of the fourth declension of the neutral gender ending in -а/-я;

5. Conclusion

The mathematical method's application for analysing and synthesising texts in natural language dates back to the middle of the last century when scientists put considerable effort into developing mathematical algorithms and computer programs for processing natural language texts. The apparatus of generating grammars, proposed by N. Chomsky, models processes at the syntactic level of language – the selected structural elements of the sentence make it possible to describe syntactic constructions regardless of their content. The article shows the peculiarities of sentence synthesis of different languages applying the principles of generating grammar. The influence of norms and rules of speech on the course of grammar construction is considered. The application of generating grammars has a wide range of possibilities in developing and designing automated systems for processing multilingual information, linguistic support of computer linguistic systems, etc. In natural languages, it is possible to describe context-dependent phenomena as context-independent ones regarding context-free grammars principles. Then the description becomes more complex because of new categories and rules. The article deals with the introduction of new restrictions on the classes of the mentioned above grammars. If the number of characters in the right part of the rules is not less than in the left one, it is received unabridged grammars. Then, with the replacement of only one character, context-dependent grammars are obtained. If there is only one character in the left part of the rule, context-free grammars are accepted. No further natural restrictions can be imposed on the left side of the rules.

6. References

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References

2. If a verb ends in -e , you add -d: to move - moved - moved, to live - lived - lived.

3. If a verb ends in a vowel and a consonant, the consonant is usually doubled before -ed: to stop - stopped - stopped, to drop - dropped - dropped.

4. Two syllable and multi-syllable words that end in one short vowel double the final consonant if the stress is on the final syllable: to refer - referred - referred , to permit - permitted - permitted.

5. In the American spelling of words ending in consonant + e + l, the final l will not double in the most commonly accepted form (e .g., cancel → canceled, travel → traveled). Most other Englishspeaking countries prefer to double the final l (e .g., cancel → cancelled, travel → travelled).

1. A finite verb meaning to do, to perform: What will you do tomorrow? (Shcho ty robytymesh zavtra? [Що ти робитимеш завтра?]), We did our work yesterday (My vykonuvaly svoiu robotu vchora [Ми виконували свою роботу вчора]).

2. The primary function of to do is to act as an auxiliary verb. It is used to form questions and negative statements in the present simple and simple past tenses: He does not know this rule (Vin ne znaie tsoho pravyla [Він не знає цього правила]), He did not meet them (Vin ne zustriv yikh [Він не зустрів їх]), Don't be late! (Ne spizniuitesia! [Не спізнюйтеся!]), Don't do these exercises! (Ne vykonuite tsykh vprav! [Не виконуйте цих вправ!]). It is also used to make negative statements for the imperatives . The verb to do has two conjugations in the simple present: do | does.

3. The verb to do is also used as an auxiliary verb in affirmative statements to emphasise: Do come in! (Ta zakhodte zh! [Tа заходьте ж!]) or He did come (Vin use zh pryishov [Він усе ж прийшов]).

4. In order to avoid a repetition of the finite verb, we use to do instead: He worked as well as I did (Vin pratsiuvav tak samo dobre, yak i ya [Він працював так само добре, як і я]).

The most common verb prefixes are un- (to unload, to undo , to untie), dis - (to disarm, to disappear, to discharge), re - (to rewrite, to retell, to reconstruct). The most common suffixes are: -ate (to separate , to graduate, to demonstrate), -ize (to memorize, to organize , to mobilize), -fy (to simplify, to clarify , to signify, to magnify), -en (to broaden, to shorten , to strengthen) [ 3 ].

We use do and does to make questions with the present simple . We use does for the third person singular (she/he/it) and do for the others (Tables 12- 14). We use do and does to make negatives with the present simple . We use doesn't for the third person singular (she/he/it) and don't for the others [3].