=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-2883/paper13
|storemode=property
|title=Relationships between the consumption of gamblified media and associated gambling activities in a sample of esports fans.
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2883/paper13.pdf
|volume=Vol-2883
|authors=Joseph Macey,Juho Hamari,Max Sjöblom,Maria Törhönen
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/gamifin/MaceyHST21
}}
==Relationships between the consumption of gamblified media and associated gambling activities in a sample of esports fans.==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-2883/paper13.pdf
Joseph Maceya,b, Juho Hamaria,b, Max Sjöblom, Maria Törhönenb
a
Centre of Excellence in Game Culture Studies, University of Turku, Finland.
b
Gamification Group, Tampere University, Finland.
Recent years have seen increasing academic attention to the ways in which the convergence of
video gaming and gambling creates novel activities, relationships, and business practices. The
scale and pace of this convergence has been such that observers have referenced not only the
gamification of gambling but, additionally, the gamblification of gaming. The phenomenon of
esports, or competitive video game play, is the environment which is most obviously
characterised by this process, combining as it does both novel forms of gamblified content and
established gambling activities from the world of traditional sports. Given the concerns about
the normalisation of gambling in young people there is a pressing need to investigate the ways
in which the consumption of esports, as a gamblified media product, is associated with
participation in gambling activities. The findings of this study highlight the importance of
spectating esports as a predictor of involvement in gambling associated with esports, while also
providing empirical evidence of under-age participation in gambling. Finally, it offers a
snapshot of gamblified media consumption during a period of rapid change, serving both as a
historical record and as a basis for comparison with subsequent developments in the field.
Esports, Video Games, Gamblification, Gambling, Loot Boxes, Betting, Skins
served to make gambling both more attractive
and more easily accessible.
Neither convergence nor gamblification are
Recent work in the fields of gambling
restricted to the medium of video games,
studies and game studies has begun to address
however, the impact of these phenomena on the
the phenomenon of convergence, a situation in
both the consumption of contemporary games
which the two activities are becoming
and their financial success is particularly
progressively closer to one another 5,22,26,17. A
strong44. Combined with the huge appeal of
notable outcome has been to highlight the
video games globally, these issues make video
increasing use of gambling mechanics in games
games a valuable and productive context in
as a means of driving user engagement and,
which to study convergence in general, and
more controversially, monetisation. This has
gamblification in particular.
25,13 Contemporary video games, however, are
.
not a homogeneous entity, with many diverse
This ongoing process of convergence is one
genres, business models, player communities,
which produces not only new hybrid activities
and modes of consumption present in the
and media products, but new ways in which
ecosystem. In order to effectively study the
media is consumed; new relationships and
consumption of gamblified media products
channels of interaction between media,
further specificity is required. It is in the
producers and consumers are emerging12. The
environment of esports where this trend for
gamblification of video games has potentially
5th International GamiFIN Conference 2021 (GamiFIN 2021),
April 7-10, 2021, Finland
EMAIL: joseph.macey@tuni.fi (A1); juho.hamari@tuni.fi (A2);
max.sjoblom@gmail.com (A3); maria.torhonen@tuni.fi (A4)
ORCID: 0000-0002-9770-739X (A1); 0000-0002-6573-588X
(A2); 0000-0002-0525-8153 (A3); 0000-0002-1741-6139 (A4)
2021 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative
Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)
gamblification is most heavily present, In the same way that the practices
combining as it does both new forms of surrounding traditional sports betting have been
gamblified content associated with virtual found to exist in esports betting (see H1), it is
items, but also the translation of established reasonable to expect that the betting habits and
activities from the world of traditional sports. characteristics of esports bettors will reflect
For example, gambling activities related to those of traditional sports bettors. For example,
video games include both esports betting and games of skill, such as betting, have been found
fantasy esports, alongside the paid opening of to be more strongly associated with males than
loot boxes and the use of decorative items as with females36,29. Indeed, previous work has
stakes in activities ranging from roulette to shown that engaged esports fans are more likely
lotteries22,24. Furthermore, the gambling to be male22, and that those who consume online
industry has established a significant presence esports favour games of skill over games of
in both online and physical spaces, with many chance24,21; it is likely that this preference will
companies sponsoring teams and tournaments also be observed in live esports attendees.
while also advertising heavily in esports
H2: Participation in both a) esports betting
focused websites. Consequently, this research
and b) fantasy esports will be positively
is governed by the following question:
correlated with: i) increased consumption of
RQ: How is the consumption of esports esports; and ii) younger males.
associated with participation in gambling
The presence of both loot boxes and cosmetic
activities directly connected to esports?
items known as skins in the esports gambling
This study provides a detailed examination ecosystem has been theorised as facilitating
of the associations between spectating esports, under-age gambling as they enable access
playing video games, and gambling behaviours. gambling activities without the need to employ
It provides information regarding the behaviour traditional payment systems 10,27,24. These
of consumers during the early period of virtual items are obtained through either
gamblified media consumption, thereby playing video games, or through online
allowing comparison with later, contemporary, marketplaces associated with specific games
behaviours and practices. Establishing a and digital distribution platforms. In addition,
historical record of a dynamic and ever- the increased visibility afforded to cosmetic
changing environment is valuable as it provides items by esports has been thought to increase
important context to later developments and their desirability, for example as a signifier of
provides a snapshot of behaviours such as skins in-game status6,40.
lotteries which were popular at the time but
H3: Participation in a) skins lotteries, and b)
have since all but disappeared. Finally, this is
loot box opening, will be positively correlated
one of the few empirical investigations in the
with: i) increased consumption of video games;
field of gamblification which includes minors,
and ii) increased consumption of esports.
addressing a gap in existing knowledge.
Furthermore, iii) they will be negatively
The ongoing convergence between gaming
correlated with age.
and gambling has given rise to environments
which have been theorised as normalising Given the ubiquity of both gamblified
participation in gambling5,15; furthermore, the content and consumption practices in the
practice of utilising traditional sports as a esports ecosystem, there is a pressing need for
vehicle for the promotion of gambling28 has detailed investigation of ways in which the
been theorised as also being present within the consumption of esports, as a gamblified media
more recently established field of esports20. product, is associated with participation in
Previous work has shown that as engagement gambling activities. Investigating these
with online esports grows, so too does associations allows specific features or
participation in a range of gambling activities 22, practices to be identified which increase the
it is expected that this relationship will also be likelihood of participating in gambling. Such
present in those who attend live esports events. knowledge can help guide efforts to mitigate
potential harms by providing empirical
H1: That increased participation in gambling
evidence to a range of stakeholders: developers
connected to esports will be associated with
and publishers will be able to understand the
increased consumption of esports.
results of their business approach; consumers
will be informed about the potential notable digital presence where availability is
ramifications of their choices; legislators and unrestricted by time of day or geographical
regulators will be empowered to make location, while the ecosystem is served by
informed judgements; and clinicians and many specialist sites and third-party operators.
therapists will be aided by the identification of A factor which further increases ease of access,
specific relationships between behaviours. and which serves to obscure the cost of
By studying the relationships between the participation in gambling, is the use of virtual
consumption of gamblified media products and items as stakes and prizes.
participation in gambling activities in the Virtual items often take the form of cosmetic
specific context of esports, this work will upgrades, or skins, which can be applied to
produce knowledge which can be applied to -game characters or equipment, and
both the wider field of video games and other which have varying degrees of rarity: the rarer
forms of gamblified products and services. an item is, the more desirable it is and,
therefore, the more it is worth. Acquiring
sought after skins confers social rewards to the
player, in the same way that other forms of
gambling have been found to do34,4, increasing
Increasing attention has been paid to the the attraction of gamblified content in which
ways in which the activities of video gaming they are available as prizes. Indeed, in addition
and gambling are converging with one another,
to the chance of winning something, be it in-
creating not only new hybrid activities, but also game rewards or financial rewards, games and
new methods of interaction between games, gaming culture has been used to brand
players, and companies. The scale and pace of gambling activities in order to appeal to players,
this convergence has been such that observers for example by using imagery from games such
have referenced not only the gamification of
as CounterStrike: Global Offensive (CS:GO) in
gambling3,19 but, more significantly, the
simulated coin-flipping games 24. Finally,
gamblification of gaming1,44.
gambling mechanics have been incorporated
into a range of game-based content and
subsequently evolved, in parallel to that of
products which, although not directly
gamification. It was first used to describe the constituting gambling per se, drives player
practice of utilising sports, and other cultural engagement with titles, resulting in increased
products, as a vehicle for distributing and profitability for publishers16.
promoting gambling in wider society28. The gamblification of games is, therefore,
Subsequently, gamblification has been used to evident at two distinct levels: first in specific
describe a range of practices that have evolved
forms of gamblified content or activities
as a result of the convergence of digital media.
originating within the games themselves; and,
Notable examples include: social media
second, within the wider gaming culture in
networks and social casino games 30; online
which games themselves are the object of
video games44,25; esports20,24; mobile gaming11; gambling, in this case the explicit act of
and video streaming services 1. Gamblification, gambling is not an intended design feature
therefore, is not just limited to video games, nor present within the game.
even consumption practices associated with It is the phenomenon of esports which most
games. However, it is in relation to games that succinctly encapsulates both the gamblification
the techniques and practices of gamblification of contemporary video games, and of gaming
are most widespread, and where the culture7,17. Esports is most easily understood as
consequences are most keenly observed45,6. competitive video game play structured around
Gamblification, therefore, is not simply the leagues and tournaments9. The organisation of
addition of gambling activities to existing
video game play along formal lines echoes that
services or products, instead it incorporates a of traditional sporting competition, as such the
range of practices centred around the principles
emergence of sportsbook-style betting and, to a
of uncertainty and reward; core components of lesser degree fantasy esports, is a predictable
gambling, but not, necessarily, of gaming. and obvious development. Not only are
Gamblified video games share many established industry operators offering esports
characteristics of online gambling which reduce markets, they are a significant and visible
barriers to participation: it has a significant and presence in the esports ecosystem, sponsoring
teams and tournaments. Furthermore, a notable Data was collected at the large-scale LAN-
majority of online sites offering news and event Assembly Summer 2016, between the
discussion forums for esports fans display dates 4th and 7th of August 2016. The event
significant amounts of material advertising originally focused on the demoscene computer
gambling operators and cross-promotion of art subculture but has since expanded to include
other gambling activities20,2. In addition, the gaming and eSports as a core component.
streaming of gambling activities associated Survey participants were approached by the
with video games and esports is a notable researchers and asked to fill in a survey related
presence on streaming services20,23. to eSports, with the added incentive of being
Perhaps the most (in)famous example of entered into a raffle for six gift certificates for
gamblified content is the loot box, a catch-all the Steam webstore, each worth 50 euros.
term denoting an in-game item which uses Respondents that chose to complete the survey
random number generation (RNG) to distribute did so immediately at a table set up for this
rewards to players24. Loot boxes, and other purpose. Information regarding the nature of
gamblified content have been closely the research was provided in English and
associated with esports due to their presence in Finnish, both verbally and in written form, and
popular esports titles, notably CS:GO24. Indeed, researchers were present to provide any further
the popular esports team Ninjas in Pyjamas information on demand.
launched the 2013 update in which loot boxes The survey included items measuring a
were first added to CS:GO41. Loot boxes have range of items related to both their behaviour at
been linked to consumption patterns which the event itself and more general consumption
mirror problematic gambling behaviour and practices related to video games and esports. In
have been the subject of numerous addition, it included items measuring
investigations by regulatory bodies, with some participation in a range of gambling activities
ruling that they constitute a form of gambling24. and motivations for watching esports. The four
Although loot boxes are not the only individual gambling activities included in the
example of gamblificaiton present in survey were not an exhaustive list, but reflected
contemporary video games, and gaming those directly associated with esports, betting
culture, they serve to highlight the growing and fantasy esports, and with virtual items
unease around the convergence of gaming and strongly associated with esports games, loot
gambling. First, the scale of gamblified content boxes and skins. Questions recording average
and consumption practices has led to concern weekly hours spent on an individual activity
that gambling-like behaviours are being allowed free-form responses, while possible
normalised among those who play and watch responses for frequency of participation ranged
video games5. The comparative youth of this Participation in
group, in regard to general society, is a potential individual gambling activities were recorded
risk factor given the proven link between early via
exposure to gambling and the subsequent In total, approximately 550 individuals were
development of disordered gambling approached, of those approached an estimated
behaviours later in life35,18. In addition, the use 50% agreed to complete the survey. Of the 281
of gambling, and gambling-like interactions, as returned surveys, 26 were found to be
a means of increasing the monetisation of incomplete or to contain otherwise invalid
players has been termed exploitative as responses giving a final dataset of 255 valid
responses.
decisions about purchases are negatively Both the frequency of gambling associated
impacted16. These issues are further with esports games (a) and participation in
compounded by the fact that these gamblified specific gambling activities (b) were cross-
interactions are taking place within tabulated with measures of: demographic
environments which are predominantly characteristics, the consumption of esports, and
unregulated, and which are not subject to game play. Several cells had counts below 5, as
independent scrutiny24.
-squared14
order to determine predictive power and
D is an asymmetric test, accordingly, frequency
of gambling associated with esports (a) and
individual gambling activities (b) were selected
as the dependent variables for each cross-
tabulation. Only one table was square
(frequency of participation in gambling by
frequency of watching esports online), in this
-b is reported, for all other
-
rong
relationship33
42
. All Approximately 13% of respondents reported
analysis was performed using SPSS version 24. that this was the first time they had attended a
live esports event, while the majority, 59%,
reported having previously attended upto five
live esports events. A total of 33% of
respondents reported watching esports online
once a week or more, with under 10% reporting
The final data set was predominantly that they never watch esports online. A
youthful, with approximately 85% of minority, 29%, reported watching esports
respondents reporting being under the age of 30 online for an average of five or more hours per
(Table 1); the youngest respondent was 12 week, of these five individuals, 2% of total
years of age, while the oldest reported being 47. respondents, reported watching an average of
In addition, 79% of respondents reported 25 hours or more per week.
identifying as male (Table 2). These figures are In respect to gambling activities associated
unsurprising given the nature of the event at with video games and esports, a majority of
which data was gathered; young males have 64% reported never having participated in such
previously been found to dominate attendance activities, while approximately 8% reported
at both LANs and other computer culture events participating once a week or more often. Of
such as live esports competitions 37,38. those who had participated in gambling
Somewhat unsurprisingly, the majority of activities, the most popular individual activity
respondents reported playing video games was found to be betting on esports matches or
regularly, with 59% stating that they played 15 tournaments (31%), followed by loot box
hours per week or more. Indeed, only two opening (22%), using skins lotteries (14%), and
individuals, under 1% of the total respondents, playing fantasy esports (3%). These activities
reported not playing games while 28% reported are not mutually exclusive, approximately 20%
playing 30 hours per week or more. indicated participating in more than one
activity, in varying combinations. Finally, of
those who reported participating in gambling
associated with video games and esports, less
than 20% were over the age of 25. Indeed, the
more frequent participation was associated with
younger respondents: 60% of both monthly and
weekly gamblers were under 18, while 50% of
daily gamblers were under the age of 18.
As several tests were performed in each
cross-tabulation, results were subject to a
family-wise error correction in order to control
for type I errors. The Bonferroni method has statistically significant predictor of
been criticised as resulting in increased chance participation in esports betting. However, the
of type II errors due to the fact that it is an exact nature of the relationship is unclear as,
overly conservative approach32,39. The after applying the Benjamini-Hochberg
Benjamini-Hochberg procedure was chosen correction, the apparently large effect size
preference to the Bonferroni method given that
it balances power and parsimony43. All p-values of statistical significance. Neither of the other
have been presented at the adjusted level.
The primary area of interest was the statistically significant results.
potential relationships between participation in Gender and frequency of watching esports
gambling associated with esports and the online were found to be statistically significant
consumption of both esports and video games. predictors of participation in skins lotteries,
Only two items were found to have statistically with the effect size or gender being moderate
significant relationships with participation in
gambling activities: average weekly hours esports was found to have a large effect size
spent watching esports online, and frequency of
watching esports online. Both items were found
to have strong effects, with average hours being .061) and to demonstrate a weak, positive
notably larger than frequency of online
Alongside participation in betting, paying to
respectively). Similarly, both were found to open loot boxes was found to have four
have moderately strong predictive power statistically significant predictors: number of
live events attended, average weekly hours
However, frequency of watching esports online spent watching esports online, frequency of
was found to have a strong positive association watching esports online, and average weekly
ile average hours spent watching hours spent playing digital games. All except
esports online was found to have a moderately average weekly hours spent playing digital
games were found to have strong effect sizes
In regard to participation in esports betting,
the following items were found to be respectively). Number of live events previously
statistically significant predictors of attended was found to have weak predictive
participation: age, gender, average weekly
hours spent watching esports online, and
frequency of watching esports online. Of these, remaining items (average weekly hours spent
both age and frequency of watching online were watching esports online, frequency of watching
found to esports online, and average weekly hours spent
.5, and .343, respectively), while gender was playing digital games) all displayed moderate
predictive power and moderately strong,
V = .17). Age was found to have moderate = .148, .154,
predictive power, and to have a strong negative
- - .349,
respectively). Gender was found to have low
predictive power, and to have a moderate
- -
.113, respectively). Average weekly hours This research uses data collected at a
watching esports online was found to have computer culture and esports event in August
moderate predictive power, and to have a 2016 in order to examine the consumption of
esports and associated gambling activities.
moderately strong positive association
Several statistically significant associations, of
varying effect sizes, were observed in relation
Finally, frequency of watching esports online
was found to have moderately strong predictive to both general esports/video game-related
power, and to have a strong positive association gambling and specific individual activities. In
= 339, respectively). addition, this research demonstrated that under-
Only one item, average weekly hours spent age individuals are a notable presence in
playing digital games, was found to be a gambling associated with games and esports,
thereby highlighting the importance of ensuring connection, one that goes beyond playing.
such populations are not excluded from Participating in fantasy esports offers a channel
research, despite being under the legal age. for engagement that can be accessed when
The expectation that participation in playing is not practical, or even possible, such
gambling activities directly connected to as at work or when travelling.
esports would be positively correlated with Similar to H2b, as described above, analysis
increased consumption of esports (H1) was of the data revealed results which were
only partially supported as no statistically substantially different to the expectations of
significant relationship was observed with H3a. Participation in skins lotteries was
attendance at live events. This may be due to anticipated to be positively correlated with both
the data being gathered at Assembly; although game play and esports consumption, and
the event features esports as a core component, negatively correlated with age, however, it was
it has features of a LAN event 38, as such the found to positively correlate with hours spent
focus is more on participation than spectating. watching esports online and with males. It may
It is possible that if data were gathered at a be that gender is a stronger predictor than age
dedicated esports tournament, different results due to the fact that skins lotteries have been
might be observed. most strongly associated with the game
As with the first hypothesis, H2a was CS:GO24 a game with a predominantly, but not
partially supported as all expected associations exclusively, male player base. The rationale
were present except that of attending live underlying the hypothesised negative
esports events, it is likely that this too is correlation between skins lotteries and age was
explained by the context in which data was that younger players could access the game by
gathered. It is worth noting that the item with using virtual items (skins) in place of real-
the largest individual effect on participation in money stakes, unlike other forms of gambling.
esports betting, among esports fans is age. However, it seems that the use of virtual items
While the second largest predictor, watching as stakes does not influence the age profile of
esports online, is explained by the fact that it is participants. The lack of statistically significant
likely to serve as a channel for acquiring association with hours spent playing video
information about players and teams, the strong games is likely explained by the fact that,
association with age is less easy to explain although skins are items which are used within
given that betting can be accessed with real- games, they can be obtained outside of the
world currencies in addition to virtual items. game itself, either via online market places or
Given the potential for disordered gambling purchasing and opening loot boxes outside of
behaviours to develop as a result of early the game. Finally, the unexpected positive
exposure35,18, this association is one which correlation between skins lotteries and
requires closer study. watching esports online may be explained by
Investigating the associations between the fact that watching esports competitions
exposes spectators to a greater range of skins
participation in fantasy esports (H2b) yielded than simply playing the game. Consequently,
especially surprising results, as none of the spectators may be encouraged to try to obtain
expected correlations were observed. Indeed, desirable, and therefore expensive, skins by
only a single item was found to have a gambling rather than direct purchase.
statistically significant relationship: average Once again, H3b was only partially
weekly hours spent playing video games. It was supported with the expected positive
anticipated that esports consumption habits correlations between loot box opening and both
would be meaningful predictors given that online esports spectating and video game play
individuals can obtain knowledge as a result of having been observed, however, expected
watching esports content, as is the case in negative correlation with age not being
traditional sports31. As this appears not to be the observed. It is noteworthy that neither of the
case, it may be that those who play fantasy demographic measures were found to be
esports may get their information from other statistically significant predictors of loot box
sources, such as dedicated sites featuring news, opening, whereas all measures of media
statistics etc. The association with game play consumption were positively correlated.
may be due to a situation in which fans of a The significance of media consumption in
given game seek to maintain an ongoing influencing participation in gambling
associated with esports and video games is dedicated esports event, one in which activity is
clear, with average hours spent spectating limited to spectating.
esports online being a statistically significant A further limitation is that at the time at
predictor in all cases except, somewhat which the date was gathered skins lotteries were
paradoxically, fantasy esports. the most prevalent form of gambling using
That spectating esports online is a virtual items, with contemporary estimates
significant influence on participation in valuing the skins lottery market at
gambling is likely due to the fact that spectating approximately $7.4bn8. However, late 2016
esports exposes viewers not only to the saw a series of scandals and negative publicity
gamblified content present within games, but related to skins lotteries, including examples of
also to other aspects. These additional rigged competitions and lawsuits targeting
influencing factors include exposure to Valve10. Consequently, Valve acted to restrict
gambling sponsors and references to gambling the transfer of skins between player accounts,
and odds as part of the event commentary, in thereby hindering the effective functioning of
addition to video content featuring gambling many third-party websites which hosted skins
which is part of the wider esports mediascape23. lotteries. Participation in skins lotteries has
This is particularly significant when significantly declined, yet skins are still used to
considering that gamblified media have the access many gambling activities, as such this
potential to encourage problematic work can serve as a basis for examining other
consumption behaviours. Consequently, there activities which use virtual items as stakes.
are implications for gamers, publishers, and In addition to future research investigating
regulators. First, those publishers which seek to different forms of gambling connected to
further user engagement and drive monetisation esports and video games, a further area
through adding gamblified content or requiring specific attention is the role of
promoting an adjacent esports scene must be streamed video content which showcases
aware of the potential consequences. Any such gambling, such as loot box opening, crash
approach much be carefully considered, and betting, or themed casino games. This
responsibly enacted. unregulated content is often used in order to
Second, consumers need to be aware of promote online gambling sites which use
these gamblified environments and the virtual items, serving to both normalise
relationships with increased participation in gambling and advertise gambling to vulnerable
gambling. Such awareness can assist populations. Indeed, this research has
consumers to make informed decisions, and to highlighted the prevalence of gambling among
seek services which suit their needs and desires. young esports spectators, providing empirical
Third, in order to be effective, any attempts evidence that under-age gambling is an
to regulate the increasing gamblification of established practice in gaming and esports.
media should not simply address individual
activities but must consider wider consumption
practices and surrounding cultures. Requiring
service providers to implement programmes
akin to responsible gambling initiatives, may be This study examines the relationships
an appropriate approach. between the consumption of esports and
The most significant limitation of this work participation in associated gambling activities
relates to the fact that data was gathered at an in a sample of esports fans, offering insights
event at which esports is a significant, but not into a range of context-specific activities:
sole, focus; furthermore, Assembly is an event esports betting, fantasy esports, skins lotteries,
which is centred upon participation, rather than and loot box opening. The findings of this work
offer several contributions. First, it highlights
spectating. However, of those attendees who
participated in this research, 90% reported the importance of spectating esports online as a
predictor of involvement in gambling
spectating esports within the previous 12
months, demonstrating that the sample meets associated with esports. Second, it provides
the needs of the research. With these issues in empirical evidence of under-age participation
mind, a fruitful avenue for future research in gambling. Finally, it offers a snapshot of
would be to gather data from attendees at a gamblified media consumption during a period
of rapid change; functioning both as a historical
record and as a basis for comparison with future
developments in the field. paper on the World Health Organization
ICD-11 Gaming Disorder proposal
(Aarseth et al.). Journal of Behavioral
Addictions 6 (3) (2017) 306-309.
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This research was supported by a grant from Old and New Media Collide. New York
the Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies. University Press, New York, 2006.
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