Yoked Flows for Direct Representafion of Scienfific Research Robert B. Allen New York, NY, USA ABSTRACT We propose developing highly structured and interlocking, or yoked, descriptions for all aspects of scientific research reports. These structured descriptions would be based on rich standardized vocabularies. We use two principal sets of flows to provide such structured descriptions: (a) Research Design and Procedures; and (b) Hypotheses and Outcomes. The structured descriptions may also include the research question, threats to validity, and implications. We propose that the best way to capture and describe the structure of scientific research is by considering multiple flows which are yoked. The claims from the research are propositions and they can be coordinated in a knowledgebase. As an example, we examine Pasteur’s study of germ theory and support interaction with the structured description of the study with a prototype graphical user interface. We also consider template structures for different parts of the research reports. Ultimately, structured research reports could be interwoven into structured and evolving digital-library knowledgebases. KEYWORDS Highly Structured Digital Library, Microworld, Research Designs, Simulation Space, Specific Comparisons, Transitional Propositions, Validity 1 INTRODUCTION Recently, we have focused on the comprehensive ontology SUMO [24] as the vocabulary for such We have been exploring direct representation for models. One important feature of SUMO that scientific research reports. Direct representation distinguishes it from most other ontologies is the proposes that entire research reports can and inclusion of rules. We also propose the adoption should be highly structured. Moreover, we of object-oriented modeling [7] in place of propose that collections of research reports can be traditional approaches to presenting and interwoven into a rich semantic knowledgebase. processing knowledgebases. We implement transitions between object states and apply 1.1 Semantic Models linguistic models of “case roles” to describe them Causal models, whether explicit or implicit, are [9]. central to science. Scientific research articles In previous work, we have proposed a broad would benefit from using highly structured models framework for flows that can be applied across which support state changes and causal relations. domains [6, 10]. We have conducted several We use “flows” as a generic term for sequences of studies describing mechanisms and systems with transitions such as workflows. flowcharts, plans, structured, semantic vocabularies. Building on the mechanisms, and other causal sequences. modeling techniques in [9], we describe steps Potentially, flows could be circular or have toward developing a rich model-oriented feedback loops. knowledgebase to support science. We describe Digital Infrastructures for Scholarly Content Objects (DISCO), September 2021 EMAIL: rba@boballen.info ORCID: [0000-0002-4059-2587] © 2021 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org) policies for making these simulations plausible and without the aid of a microscope, produced spoilage, useful. While our current work focuses on fermentation, and some diseases. qualitative models, the approach should also One early controversy was whether microbes support quantitative models. developed only from other microbes or whether 1.2 Scientific Research Reports they developed spontaneously. That is, whether existing organisms are needed to propagate new There is a long tradition of research on scholarly organisms and those existing organisms are carried publications (e.g., [1, 30, 32]). Structure has by air currents. We focus on a version of Pasteur’s increasingly been added to descriptions of classic experiments that explored spontaneous scientific research. Taken to the logical generation [23, 26]. Pasteur’s experiments are conclusion, we propose that research reports generally regarded as pivotal in confirming the should be totally structured. Structured research importance of microbes and how they propagate.1 reports have many advantages. For instance, they can support interactive interfaces for visualizing 1.4 Roadmap and exploring the relationships among interlocking In [3], we used Pasteur’s germ theory experiments flows. Visualization of flows is related to timeline to illustrate the potential for applying direct visualizations (e.g., [2]). representation to scientific research reports. In this Several types of flows are already widely used in paper, we return to that example and describe how science. Workflows are used to specify several techniques proposed in our recent work can experimental procedures (e.g., [14]). Mechanisms be implemented to produce unified scientific are often central for describing complex research reports. phenomena [6, 11]. However, before our work, Our primary goal is the development of the Research Designs (e.g., [28]) as distinct from underlying modeling framework for the Research Procedures have not been explored as organization and application of scientific structured flows. knowledge. These models emphasize causal Beyond describing aspects of workflows and relationships (rather than classification) so we research phenomena directly, other parts of science focus on what might be called transitional research reports make claims and generalizations propositions. We also describe an interface for about phenomena. These can be characterized as a interacting with the models.2 type of discourse [1, 2, 13, 15, 19, 25, 30]. We In short, we propose that the best way to capture agree with [21] that research inferences cannot be and describe the structure of scientific research is based simply on formal logic. Rather, they follow by considering multiple flows which are yoked. a preponderance of evidence and consistency with The claims from the research are propositions that other results. can be coordinated in a knowledgebase. 1.3 Pasteur’s Germ Theory Germ theory was a paradigm shift in biology. It was sparked by the development of the microscope and the resulting ability to see microbes. Louis Pasteur was a major proponent of germ theory, which was the notion that tiny organisms, invisible 1 While Pasteur’s report was not as detailed as current research 2 At this point, we are not focused on inference or text mining. reports, it is straightforward and useful as an exemplar. 2 2 STRUCTURED RESEARCH Research Question, Research Motivation, and Hypotheses. REPORTS Addressing the Research Question is the 2.1 Models and Knowledge immediate goal of the research. Typically, it Structures involves determining the existence, properties, mechanisms, processes, or applications associated While science uses systematic manipulations with an entity or phenomenon. In some cases, the and/or observations, it also crucially depends on goal may simply be the replication of other models about the phenomena under investigation. research or addressing some criticisms that were We employ two major flows to capture these two raised about prior work. In this paper, we require aspects. The first describes the Research Design that Research Questions can be answered with and Procedure while the second describes the structured propositions.4 Hypothesis (i.e., what might happen) and Outcomes (i.e., what did happen). Examples of the Research Motivation might be practical (e.g., to find cures for a disease) or simply Research microworlds are where the to acquire knowledge. Either way, it is an axiom, manipulations come together with the a given representing a valuation. Additional phenomenon under investigation. States and state statements may link the Research Question to the changes are useful (at least implicitly) for models Research Motivation. that describe dynamic environments. Some states are based on the properties of objects. Other states The researcher then establishes plausible are based on the relationship among objects (e.g., hypotheses by considering the factors potentially an object is “trapped”). Sealing a flask is a relevant to the Research Question by referring to complex action that achieves a state of separation. established principles and previous research. Breaking the flask is a way to unseal it and instantiate a new state in which the external air can 2.3 Research Design and Procedures move into the flask. Many research activities are Based on the hypotheses, a Strategy is determined. workflows that involve multiple steps and The Strategy consists of the Research Design and interlock with other flows [9, 10]. Research Procedure. The Design is an overall framework for obtaining valid results. While much of science is concerned with Independent and dependent variables are key parts developing general principles, sciences such as of the Design. Typically, one of the hypotheses geology and astronomy, as well as clinical proposes some causal relationship between the medicine, deal more with particulars. Reasoned independent and dependent variables. The models can be developed for either general independent variable may be manipulated either (abstract) principles or instances. directly or indirectly. In natural experiments, the researcher identifies a natural event that creates 2.2 Creating a Research Space conditions suitable for the research. These may include cases from natural science, social science Traditional research papers follow the IMRD [8], and medical science (e.g., the effects of (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion)3 [32] smoking on cancer). In field and laboratory framework. Swales [32] described the purpose of experiments, the researcher takes specific actions the Introduction of a research report as “creating a to manipulate the test environment. research space” (CARS). This includes defining a Standard Research Designs are so entrenched in some fields that many researchers are unaware of 3 Some publications do not use the exact IMRD structure but 4 See https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/questions/ usually follow some permutation of it. 3 them. In other fields, a variety of research manipulations directly or indirectly change the paradigms is used and their merits are debated. state of the microworld and/or its contents. In [28] is a well-known analysis of the issues with other work (e.g., [7, 8, 10]) we allow complex different research designs. It discusses a wide microworlds; potentially, they could be subdivided range of designs and provides a notation for and have different levels of temporal and spatial describing them. Moreover, it compares the granularity. possible threats to valid inference using different research designs. While [28] is primarily based on 2.5 Outcomes, Internal Validity, and field research with randomization such as is Comparisons common in social science, it can and should be As the research is conducted, the raw data can be applied more generally. structured and stored according to the semantic It is highly desirable to have at least two conditions model. The data can be manipulated and for comparison [28]. This is especially true when workflows for data transformations and statistical one group is a control group and there is analyses can be included7 along with the massaged randomization of participants across conditions. data. However, these recommendations are not followed when a second group is difficult or impossible to Using the data, we can make comparisons across implement, or when the researcher believes that the flows. These comparisons are the basis for he/she knows about and has controlled for possible claims. Claims are propositions. They have a truth extraneous factors. value that expresses a judgment or opinion about The Research Procedure is a script or plan for the some aspect of the research (e.g., the causal researcher’s actions. It applies methods and relationship between the independent and materials. Those are usually specific to the domain dependent variables). under investigation and may threaten the internal The primary comparison is set up by the Research validity of the research if applied incorrectly. Design. In Pasteur’s study which we analyze below, the comparison is relatively simple. In 2.4 Hypotheses and Microworlds other cases (e.g., [33]), the comparisons may There is considerable controversy about the role of involve complex objects and processes, and hypotheses in scientific research. In cases such as statistical tests that require additional flows. Pasteur’s experiment discussed below, the Research must satisfy many constraints; many hypotheses are sharply drawn and are associated things can go wrong and invalidate the results. with a distinct, although not necessarily fully [28] identifies two major types of validity for understood, mechanism. However, in other cases, research, internal and external validity8. Internal a hypothesis may be nothing more than a hunch.5 validity refers to problems with the Research Our models are typically situated in a microworld6 Procedure and Methods, and whether they which is a spatial region that provides the context implemented the intended research conditions. for the interaction of objects involved in the The researcher may check on the effect of a novel phenomenon under investigation [12]. The 5 6 This term is adopted from object-oriented programming. In Perhaps it would be better to use the term “potential explanation” rather than hypothesis. For example, in [4] we our applications, it may be more appropriate to call it a simulation space. examined [33], a modern biology paper dealing with the 7 These could follow the scripts of any of several statistical protein pathway related to Wallerian Degeneration. That paper analysis packages, although a common interchange cast a wide net and tested hypotheses which seemed unlikely framework would be preferred. to be relevant. 8 They also mention statistical conclusion validity and construct validity. 4 or tricky manipulation. Such checks on the wine, beer, tofu, and soy sauce making, and for manipulation would also be described with flows. controlling infectious disease. In [3], we used Pasteur’s research to explore the possibilities for [28] lists potential threats to validity for each highly structured research reports. In this paper, research design. Structured research reports we take another step toward realizing that goal. should include specific structures for handling We consider one of a series of related experiments each of these issues. For instance, the outcome by Pasteur. Specifically, we develop flows and an summary could have a list of hypotheses and interface for presenting a structured description of challenges to their validity. one of Pasteur’s germ theory experiments. 2.6 External Validity, Pasteur put a nutrient broth in two sets of flasks. Generalizations, and He boiled the broth and then sealed the neck of the Explanations flasks. He observed the flasks and eventually broke the neck open on one set of them. The flasks External validity refers to the ability to generalize that remained sealed did not show microbe growth, beyond the experiment. Some generalizations may while the flasks with the broken necks did. be straightforward, but others would be based on conditions. [28] describes criteria for We separate two main streams of activity in generalizations. Generalization may require describing the experiments. The first is the referring to broader issues within the research area Researcher Activity Model, which is what the or in other areas. researcher does based on the Design and Procedure. The second is the Outcomes Model, which is what We would like to model those broader contexts, happens, or could happen, in the environment but, in many cases, they are not currently part of under investigation. Although we distinguish them, any structured model base. Eventually, such a the two streams are closely interlinked or yoked. model base could be developed; until then we can sketch a temporary framework (see Section 3.4). We focus on modeling the microworld and frame the experiment as a research design with two Explanations may simply state a general rule. conditions. In the first condition, broth-filled They may also try to describe how the rule applies flasks are sealed and then observed indefinitely. In to a given situation. If pressed, a mechanism to the second condition, the flasks are sealed but support the rule might be given. For instance, if eventually broken to demonstrate that spoilage we were explaining why hot air balloons rise, we occurs once external air reaches the broth. The would assert the rule that “hot air rises” and then critical test, between the sealed and broken-neck might go into a discussion of the molecular flasks, is determined by the Research Design and dynamics of gasses (see Section 4.1). the manipulations.9 By modern standards, Pasteur’s description of the 3 PASTEUR’S SPONTANEOUS research is somewhat informal. For instance, GENERATION EXPERIMENT although Pasteur mentions that he made multiple flasks, we do not know how many. For illustrative 3.1 Overview purposes, we have inferred details as needed to Farmers have considerable interest in complete these examples. understanding and controlling fermentation. The results of Pasteur’s studies [23, 26, 31] are of practical importance for endeavors such as dairy, 9 No systematic randomization was done and there was no the comparisons that can be made and that must be explicitly statistically significant sample, but the control groups suggest represented. 5 3.2 Prototype Interactive Interface  Toggle Model Details: Shows additional details of the models. Potentially, there would be unique IDs Figure 1 shows the Researcher Activity Model (left) for each of the model entities and transitions and the ontological parents associated with each could be and Outcomes Model (center). Each has two displayed [10]. columns, for each of the two conditions. Also  Threats [to validity] and Alternative Explanations shown (right) are Actual results and the key  Inferences, Related Research, Applications, and Commentary comparison that indicates that H1 (Hypothesis1) is supported (lower right). The interface was implemented with Python using the Tk graphics library. Development is ongoing; At the top of the interface, there are several options the current version is tailored to the specific to control the features of the visualization. These example and does not include all the features include: needed for other research reports.  Toggle Method Details: Presents detailed descriptions of the procedures. Figure 1: Screenshot of our interactive interface. The Conditions (left) follow the Research Design (blue) and Research Procedures (maroon). The Hypothesis Models and expected results are shown in green. The main comparisons for the hypotheses are shown (far right) in red and the conclusion in gold. 3.3 Hypotheses and the Microworld We focus here on Hypothesis1 because it is much more specific than Hypothesis0. Hypothesis1 is Model justified by several claims: Because of the complex interaction of entities in the Microworld, developing the full hypothesis  Microbes can be carried by air currents (0)  Sealing the flask neck blocks outside air (1) models required additions to our evolving ontology  Breaking flask neck allows outside air to enter (2) and modeling framework. While some air had live  High temperatures kill microbes (3) microbes suspended in it, the air in the sealed flask  Microbes feed in a nutrient medium (4) had no live microbes. Thus, the state of the air is  Microbes will reproduce given food and other suitable conditions (5) correlated with its location and the history of that  Metabolism by many microbes results in spoilage location. (6) 6 Earlier research by Pasteur had confirmed (0). The the reproductive processes of the microbes would other claims are largely consistent with common provide support. sense, though they could be tested more As noted earlier, the research outcomes need to systematically as needed. However, even with satisfy both internal and external validity. Internal extended testing, it is difficult to make an validity concerns what happened because of the unassailable case [21]. experimental procedure. For instance, we could A full executable flow model for Hypothesis1 dismiss (*9) 12 based on the experience of farmers. would be analogous to the flow model in [10].  A longer time is needed for spoilage to develop than Note that a model for Hypothesis1 would need to was used (*9) include models of airflow in the microworld, ad (*10) was proposed by Antoine Béchamp, one of hoc subregions for the air in the flasks, and multi- Pasteur’s critics. The claim was that sealing the granular models that describe transitions of flask prevented air with some “vital essence” from individual microbes as well as collections of reaching the broth. In a follow-up study, Pasteur microbes. was able to dismiss this criticism with his well- Because they are yoked, any execution of the known swan-neck flask experiment [26]. Hypothses1 model should execute the parallel  Sealed air loses its vital essence (*10) Researcher Activity model. 3.5 Generalizations 3.4 Outcomes If we combine (6) with (8’) we obtain (11). Raw data and inferences based on those data can  Spoilage due to fermentation can be minimized by be collected and organized according to the models controlling the presence of microbes (11) described here. In Pasteur’s study, the key This suggests the need for cleanliness to control observation is whether spoilage develops once the contamination in the preparation of fermented flask neck is broken and microbe-laden air can products. Further, if we combine (3) with (11) we enter. That is, the critical test for the Pasteur study get (12), which is the basis of pasteurization. supports Hypothesis1, that the living microbes carried by air currents lead to spoilage. 10 We did  Spoilage due to fermentation can be controlled by heating the nutrient medium (12) not model the Actual Outcomes in this case, but we could have because they could be different than the Joseph Lister generalized (3, 8’, 13) to bacterial predictions of either of the Hypotheses.11 infections to study and promote the need for sterile surgery. Moreover, adding (14) yields (15). Based on accepting Hypothesis1, we can state two overall claims:  Bacteria are a type of microbe (13)  Antiseptics kill bacteria (14)  Microbes do not develop spontaneously (7)  Bacterial infection can be minimized by antiseptics  Microbes develop from other microbes (8) (15)  Microbes develop only from other microbes of the same type (8’) Given the importance of each of these inferences for humans, presumably additional work would be (8’) is a stronger version of (8). Initially, we might done. For instance, specific microbes and the be less willing to accept it, but there are additional factors we might consider. For instance, flows for 10 We might note the initial observation, that the sealed flasks 12 Following a convention in linguistics, the * indicates that show no spoilage. For a more formal confirmation, we could the proposition is incorrect. conduct an additional study with a control group. 11 In [33] the results demonstrated a type of protein binding that was not predicted by the authors. 7 details of conditions for growth could be studied 4.2 Knowledge Structures for each medium. Claims from research reports and general axioms could be collected into a comprehensive 4 FUTURE WORK knowledgebase. Although comprehensive, such a 4.1 Interface, Model, and Claims knowledgebase would be fragmented, changing, and need to represent multiple viewpoints. Even The interface in Figure 1 is adequate for a for areas where there is considerable agreement, straightforward experiment such as Pasteur’s. there are internally consistent areas of knowledge However, many modern research papers are much (e.g., Newtonian mechanics) that may be usefully more complex. For instance, [33] includes a modeled separately from their connection to description of developing a strain of Drosophila broader models (e.g., quantum mechanics). needed for the research. It then conducts a series of overlapping studies that makes a case for its Any knowledgebase of claims will need a range of conclusions although no one study provides a structured hedges to indicate the type of claim definitive test. In such a set of studies, a great (conceptual/logical, empirical, etc.), level of many flows can be identified and modeled. The confidence in the claim, and possible criticisms of interface will need to be improved to provide better it. We would use a preponderance-of-evidence support for that complexity. criterion for the acceptance of claims. The model and interface should be able to To the extent that we want to do inference on these reorganize the research report flows to fit the propositions, we will need to support both open IMRD framework (see Section 2.2). An IMRD and closed worlds [27] and temporal reasoning in Methods section would include the Research a dynamic environment [18, 22, 29]. Design, Procedure, Methods, and Materials. Each 4.3 Services for the Scientific of these components should fit sub-structures or templates and be integrated into the overall IMRD Knowledgebase framework. The knowledgebase of research reports and claims Claims must be based on clear definitions [12]. can be viewed as a digital library. In addition to We have proposed SUMO as an ontology. SUMO structured research reports, the library could also bases its rules on established definitions, but even include structured surveys and reviews. Such a these need to be expanded and refined. library could be overlaid with services like those found in a text-based digital library such as Although we have related claims to natural metadata harvesting and search indexing. Because language propositions, our structured approach the contents are structured, daemons may be able does not require natural language. Moreover, the to generate text versions of the reports and to case roles may be more exactly defined for each identify redundancy and inconsistencies. transitional and its interaction with various objects. We emphasize propositions that make claims about In Section 2.6, we suggested that an explanation state changes such as (8). In a knowledgebase for a claim could present a rule and an underlying these claims should be accompanied by metadata. mechanism. There is a broader sense of The metadata should include basic details such as explanations that they should engage users in a date and creator; they should also link to related way that promotes understanding. For instance, an claims. If the metadata are said to provide support extension of Figure 1 could support graphical for claims, the details of that support should be guided tours as explanations. More elaborate included. explanations may be tutorial and can be based on pedagogical techniques. 8 There could be links across structured research 4 R.B. Allen, Rich linking in a digital library of full-text scientific research reports, Columbia University reports that are analogous to citations [5]. Our Research Data Symposium, 2013, RDStext.pdf focus is at the level of semantics rather than the 5 R.B. Allen, Rich semantic models and characteristics of the documentation. Thus, rather knowledgebases for highly-structured scientific communication, 2017, arXiv: 1708.08423 than link authors, we link functionally and 6 R.B. Allen, Issues for using semantic modeling to semantically related flows (e.g., about methods) represent mechanisms, 2018, arXiv: 1812.11431 that are shared across research reports. In addition, 7 R.B. Allen, Definitions and semantic simulations based on object-oriented analysis and modeling, 2019, measures analogous to citation metrics and alt- adXiv: 1912.13186 metrics could be developed for the strength of 8 R.B. Allen, Metadata for social science datasets, In: claims and the coherence of the knowledgebase Rich Search and Discovery for Research Datasets: Building the Next Generation of Scholarly [16]. Infrastructure, Edited by J.I. Lane, I. Mulvany, P. Nathan, Sage Publishing, 2020, PDF Finally, (structured) annotations and commentary 9 R.B. Allen, Semantic modeling with SUMO, 2020, could be added. And administrative and editorial arXiv: 2012.15835 policies should be developed for managing the 10 R.B. Allen, YM. Chu, Semantic models of pottery making, Pacific Neighborhood Consortium, 2021 in collection. press 11 W. Bechtel, A. Abrahamsen, Explanation: A 4.4 Envoi mechanist alternative. In Special Issue: Mechanisms in Biology. Studies in History and Philosophy of We have proposed using yoked flows to manage Science Part C Studies in History and Philosophy of the complexity of scientific research reports and Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 36(2), 421-41, 2005, doi: 10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.03.010 have presented a prototype of a user interface for 12 J.J. Cimino, Desiderata for controlled medical exploring those flows. vocabularies in the twenty-first century, 1998, Methods of Information in Medicine, 1998, 37(4-5), In addition, we have discussed issues for how 394–403, PMC: 3415631 claims from empirical scientific research can be 13 T. Clark, P.N. Ciccarese, C.A. Goble, Micropublications: A semantic model for claims, collected and coordinated. The discovery and evidence, arguments, and annotations in biomedical evaluation of causal claims are common to other communications, Journal of Biomedical Semantics, scientific paradigms [20]. While those other 2014, doi: 10.1186/2041-1480-5-28 14 D. de Roure, C. Goble, R. Stevens, The design and paradigms may have different procedures than realisation of the myexperiment virtual research empirical research, they are also based on flows. environment for social sharing of workflows. Future Even if we distinguish classification (e.g., Generation Computer Systems 25, 2009, 561-567. doi: 10.1016/j.future.2008.06.010 identifying different types of microbes) as a 15 A. deWaard, 2010, From proteins to fairytales: scientific research activity, flows are still used and Directions in Semantic Publishing, Intelligent could be modeled. Systems, IEEE, 25(2), 83-88, 2010, doi: 10.1109/MIS.2010.49 While we have pointed out some promising 16 M. Friendman, Explanation and scientific understanding, Journal of Philosophy, 71(1), 1974, 5- directions, there is still challenging work to be 19 done in populating and organizing a large 17 R. Furuta, F.M. Shipman, CC. Marshall, D. Brenner, knowledgebase of credible propositions. H-W. Hsieh, Hypertext paths and the world-wide web: experiences with Walden’s paths, ACM Hypertext, 1997, doi: 10.1145/267437.267455 5 REFERENCES 18 A. Galton, Spatial and temporal knowledge representation, Earth Science Informatics, 2, 169–187, 1 R.B. Allen, Highly structured scientific publications. 2019, doi: 10.1007/s12145-009-0027-6 ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, 19 N.L. Green, Toward mining scientific discourse using 472, 2007, doi: 10.1145/1255175.1255271 argumentation schemes, Argument & Computation 9, 2 R.B. Allen, Visualization, causation, and history, 121–135, 2019, doi: 10.3233/AAC-18003 iConference, 2011, doi: 10.1145/1940761.1940835 20 T. Hey, S. Tansley, K. Tolle (eds.), The Fourth 3 R.B. Allen, Model-oriented scientific research reports, Paradigm: Data-Intensive Scientific Discovery, D-Lib Magazine, 2011 doi: 10.1045/may2011-allen Microsoft Research, 2009 9 21 .I. Lakatos, A. Musgrave, Criticism and the growth of 28 W.R. Shadish, T.D. Cook, D.T., Campbell, knowledge, Proceedings of the International Experimental and Quasi-Experiment Designs for Colloquium in the Philosophy of Science, London, Generalized Causal Inference, Houghton, Mifflin, V.4, Cambridge University Press, 1965 Boston, 2002, 22 E.T. Mueller, Commonsense Reasoning: An Event 29 M. Shanahan, The Event Calculus Explained, LNAI Calculus Approach, Morgan Kaufmann/Elsevier, (1600) 409-430, 1999, Citeseer: 10.1.1.596.7046 2014, ISBN-13: 978-0128014165 30 S.B. Shum, E, Motta, J. Domingue. ScholOnto: An 23 L Pasteur, Sur les corpuscules organisés qui existent ontology-based digital library server for research dans l'atmosphère: examen de la doctrine des documents and discourse. International Journal on générations spontanées: leçon professée à la Sociéte Digital Libraries, 3, 237–248, 2000, doi: chimique de Paris le 19 mai 1861, par L. Pasteur. 10.1007/s007990000034 24 A. Pease, Ontology: A Practical Guide, Articulate 31 D.E. Stokes, Pasteur's Quadrant – Basic Science and Software Press, Angwin, CA, 2011 Technological Innovation. Brookings, 1997, ISBN 25 M. Pera, The Discourses of Science, Translated: C. 9780815781776 Botsford, University of Chicago Press, 1994 32 J.M. Swales, 2004, Research Genres: Explorations 26 J.R. Porter, Louis Pasteur: Achievements and and Applications. Cambridge University Press, disappointments: 1861, Bacteriological Reviews, Cambridge UK, 2004 25(4), 389-403, 1961, doi: 10.1128/br.25.4.389- 33 R.G. Zhai, Y. Cao, P. R. Hiesinger, Y. Zhou, S.Q. 403.1961 Mehta, K.K. Schulze, P. Verstreken, H.J. Bellen, 27 A. Rector, J.Rogers, A. Taweel, Models and inference Drosophila NMNAT maintains neural integrity methods for clinical systems: A principled approach, independent of its NAD synthesis activity. PLOS Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, 2004, Biology, 4, 2006, doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0040416 107(Pt 1), 79-83, PMID: 15360779 10