Linked Archives in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Access Restrictions to Records: An Archival Science Outlook*

Abstract

This paper presents some preliminary findings of a study on the online databases developed since the 2010s by the heritage and research institutions of the Islamic Republic of Iran with the aim of making publicly available an extensive number of digital surrogates of archival records.

Keywords

• Iran
• access restrictions to archives
• digital technology
• control of knowledge
• official history

Introduction

Does a forty-year time frame represent an appropriate length of time for State and society to come to terms with the trauma of violence which involved a radical change in political and ideological structures? More than forty years after the Iranian Revolution (1979), the regime that came to power in the country is still alive, and so are the memories of the post-revolutionary massacres [ 1 ]. Multiple actors inside and outside of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) are involved today in the competing interpretations of a contested past, bound up with conflicts of collective memories and individ. The state-sanctioned denial, approval and justification of violence are confronted with calls for awareness on the reality of oppression and for a lasting change of the political culture based on cruelty and physical elimination of suspects and real opponents.

Archival records are the fundamental issue in these claims to establish the truth . The original archives are not easily accessible in the IRI. Documents regarding the revolutionary replacement of the Pahlavi rule with an Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Khomeini coherently fall under the category because they contain since significant rchival data were made publicly available by the heritage and research institutions of the IRI in the last decade. This unprecedented mobilization of the past provides insight into the Iranian history and international relations in the 20th century. Based on an extensive number of digital surrogates of archival records and oral history sources, the ever-growing online databases form a network providing immense volumes of ______________ * Copyright 2021 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0

International (CC BY 4.0). information in open access. As part of the memorialization process, they also intend to provide authoritative knowledge of the past and serve as a tool to assert the political legacy of the 1979 Islamic revolution. Sometimes, this digital material is used as historical source by Iranian and International scholars working on Iran, often without critical assessment of the conditions of creation of the original archival records and distribution of their digital surrogates. However, the question is how to ensure a quality control on this historical data in terms of trustworthiness.

Recently, a nuanced body of critical works on archives in the Middle East has discussed the actors, documentation practices, and archiving initiatives in relation to the construction of identities, political powers, States and their ideological foundations [ 2 ]. However, a historical perspective on archives in Iran remains outside the scope of the critical debate, particularly with regard to access and dissemination practices engendered by modern digital technologies [3]. Yet, this is a crucial issue. The online release of archives in the IRI, considered in relation to the problem of openness of the original archives, leads to a need for in-depth thinking on the sources available for professional communities and civil society to participate in debates on religious, philosophical, political and ideological lines, on which are based the revolutionary and political Islam. Indeed, careful thought should be given to what and why is released and, what is harder to find, what and why is not released.

This paper presents a part of the ongoing OFF-SITE research project, conducting an off-site ethnography of post-revolution Iran [ 4 ]. Following the conceptual paradigm of Agnotology as the study of ignorance [ 5 ], and theoretical and methodological discussions conducted by the experts on archival science [ 6 ], I examine the online archival databases on contemporary history (târikh- ser) developed in the IRI with regard to the issues of authenticity, integrity, traceability, and, consequently, credibility of the archives and, more broadly, historical sources in a digital environment [ 7 ] in the so- - 8]. The analysis is based on 7 (seven) out of 14 (fourteen) databases identified so far. With reference to the domain name FF-SITE How do these databases relate to each other and to State institutions? What are their relation to archival theory? How transparent are the digital processing of archival records? How and which conceptual frame of reference do they provide for the understanding of the past? I try to understand these issues in a historical perspective, with regard to the foundation of the Iranian archival system since the 1950s, also referring to studies on political, social and moral economy of the 1979 revolution [ 9 ], writing of history in Iran [ 10 ], and control on Internet in the IRI [ 11 ].

First of all, the be put in the context of access restrictions to original archival records. Below are some reference points. 2

Restrictions on Access to Records in Iran: A Regime of

Inflexible and Unrestricted State Secrecy

In May 1970 (Ordibehesht 1349), a law inaugurated the Iran National Archives Organization as a new tool to assist the Iranian state operating under the Pahlavi rule in solidifying its sovereignty and political legitimacy through centralization and perpetuation of its own documentary traces [ 12 ]. Indeed, the archives being subject to codified law were

[ 13 ]. Thus, the basic archival law in Iran asserted that only the documents of the governmental bodies and government-affiliated agencies had to be considered as being of national importance. It also implemented the concept of archives as a confined space to be controlled by the State. Some parallels can be drawn with the state-centeredness of the modern European national archives: their access, initially reserved for state administrators and jurists, was progressively broadened over the course of the nineteenth century [ 14 ]. The 1970 Iranian archival law introduced the issue of access restrictions as far too broad, implying an unduly wide leeway. There was only passing mention , without further definition [ 15 ].

A 40-year limit was introduced for the storage of all records in the relevant governmental bodies and agencies [ 16 ]. During this period, records could be made available only for competent legal authorities. What would happen after the expiry of the 40year period remained particularly unclear. The 1970 law was implying that, potentially, after 40 years a special announcement of the relevant governmental body, or a special decision of the Iran [ 17 ] might be required to definitive remove access restrictions [18]. Specific circumstances, categories or thematic clusters of documents, that might permit the period of access restrictions to be extended, were not specified [19].

The vagueness around the issue of access restrictions in the 1970 law became the major guiding principle for further regulations before and after the 1979 revolution. Two acts ratified in 1975 [20] specified two categories of sensitive government documents, namely 21] an 22]. Yet, there was still a large margin of uncertainty. The government bodies were left to decide about the degree of sensitivity of the document, and to assess when to remove it from the categories. No time limits, even approximate, were considered as if the to become publicly accountable and publicly owned. The acts retained a regime of total and permanent secrecy.

Very quickly, the political regime established in 1979 paid particular attention to archives. A bylaw was passed in summer 1983 (Tir 1362). Still lacking clarity and transparency, it stated that records the 40-year period [23]. However, the following-up of records after the expiry of the stipulated period remained in a state of uncertainty and unpredictability.

The current state of access to information, which leads directly to the phenomenon of Iranian Linked Archives databases, is the Publication and Free Access to Information Act ratified in January 2009 (Bahman 1387) [24], with some clauses clarified by further bylaws [25]. These regulations are intended to ensure the right of access to information in the IRI. Nevertheless, consciously or not, many provisions, concepts, and procedures still remain unclear, undefined, and unaddressed, thus significantly reducing their effectiveness [ 26 ]. mation are not addressed in the 2009 Act. This would require further consideration. Only a few remarks may be provided in this paper. Like the Laws on Right to Information adopted in other countries, the Iranian 2009 Act does logically prohibit access to several categories of information. Apart from sensitive information related to privacy protection, medical secrets, and commercial interests [ 27 ], classified government secrets, information that can compromise public security and comfort, or prevention and detection of crimes [28] are also listed. Yet, the 2009 Act does not mention any mean to request a special exemption or waiver for individuals who authority 29]. Nor does it make any specific provision for requirements to remove confidential information (be it a single line or a word) from a document in order to make it available to the public. A culture of undisputed secrecy seems to prevail, perhaps also because the commission responsible for the application of the 2009 Act is housed at the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance [30], known for limiting access to information.

The 2009 Act required the public and private institutions to make the nonclassified information publicly available in digital format through Internet resources [31]. This clearly is what renewed the impetus for technological modernity at the heritage and research institutions in the IRI, leading namely to the massive creation of

I will further discuss. This digital exercise follows the pattern of the writing of history through the publications of primary historical documents which, as K.S. Aghaie notes, have proliferated in the post-revolutionary Islamist historiography [32]. In fact, I would argue that the online archival databases are intended to become today the main publicly and easily available historical source material in the IRI, threatening to replace definitely the original archives. Indeed, the 2009 Act prohibits forcing the disseminators of information to disclose their sources [33]. Thus, paradoxically enough, the Act, which promotes the publicity of information, also offers the means to make original archives permanently inaccessible. Besides, since only the rights of access to information of natural persons of Iranian citizenship and of Iranian legal entities are discussed in the 2009 Act and bylaws, the non-Iranians risk facing additional barriers to historical records kept in the Iranian repositories. 3

Creators of

The institutional framework of is the most visible. It is an extensive network of private and public institutions dominant activity (archive centre, library, museum, historical society, research institute or team) is always supplemented by no less important functions of, respectively, collecting records or books, conducting oral history interviews and doing research. The institutions being particularly active in the networked digital dissemination of archival material were established after the 1979 Islamic revolution under the Khomeini years in Iran (1979-1989) [34], or after [35]. They were created for the purpose of (re)writing the history of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century Iran [36], in order to bring historical, political and social studies in line with ideological frames of revolutionary and political Islam. Moreover, some of them have recovered the archival holdings of pre-revolutionary institutions, or documents requisitioned from the political and economic elite of the Pahlavi regime. Today, these institutions refer to each other and form a powerful network, which falls under the authority of the High Council of the Cultural Revolution, formed in 1984 in continuation of the Cultural Revolution (1980-1983) [37].

While the institutional settings for the implementation of are clear, it is very difficult to identify the individuals who manage information content. The Iranian Linked Archives stand out as an impersonal corporate structure, without any personified authorities, and very little or no indication on the division of labor and individual accountabilities. Some databases do not mention the people in charge for their conception, for the selection of archival records digitized and put online, for the organization of digital surrogates, and for the creation of contextual metadata information [38]. Others provide haphazardly the names of those responsible for the content of specific sections [ 39 ]. It appears that different people are involved in the management of digital content. However, no details are provided about the places of employment, duties or functions of the individuals mentioned. The search for additional information online, through social networks or other resources about the institution concerned, is laborious and does not always help.

Finally, the Iranian Linked Archives network does not seem to include the users. Spaces for public participation are regularly provided in template forms available at the bottom of the Web pages with digital surrogates [ 40 ]. However, no trace of interactive communication with wide audience is displayed.

The 41], maintained by the heritage and research institutions of the IRI, also raises concerns regarding the quality or, more aptly put, trustworthiness of the raw research data that is made available online. 4

Neither Traced nor Traceable: Random Pieces of the Past with Lost Contextual Identity

The goal of the online disclosure of archival material is ambiguously formulated. The institutions responsible for the databases refer to the dissemination of historical sources in order to create a favourable environment for research [ 42 ]. Some mention however information warfare [ 43 ]. The vocabulary of war used in this case to define the writing of history and the digital dissemination of archival documents clearly indicates its use as a political and ideological weapon. It takes place within a stronger strategic framework outlined in 2012 by a senior Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps official, stating that a war in cyberspace was more dangerous than a physical war [ 44 ]. The ring together an enormous mass of heterogeneous materials in the form of digitized copies and born digital transcripts: personal and official correspondence, financial documentation, memorandums on political gatherings, inventories of property, obituaries, personal daily notes, photos, declarations, old maps, press clippings, etc. This diversity is remarkable, but raises concerns, since, as was pointed out, the notion of [ 45 ]. Several key observations are to be made.

Following the line that transparency is a way to allow objectivity in the disordered digital environment [ 46 ], the first thing to note is the almost total absence of any methodological statement underpinning the online release of digital surrogates. Multiple transitory decisions and discussions on the criteria used to select archival records and to group their digital surrogates online tend to b lacking openness of process. Digital surrogates may be accessed through thematic collections focused on individual, event, custom or issue [ 47 ], or groups formed upon random association of documents [48]. Photographs often form groups separated from textual archival records [49]. Metadata associated with a group of digital surrogates or a single digital surrogate provides no

the archival holdings as a whole and of the records from which the digital content originated [51]. No contextual elements allow tracing the pathways and functions of the records in the work of administrations and officials at the time of their creation. A highly variable and confusing mixture of public and private areas, and of social, economic and political fields in digital collections is alarming. One collection can be made of digital surrogates dealing with a broad chronological span, and addressing issues from the fields of politics, public education, health, taxes, popular uprisings, trade or prisons. It can include correspondence from people being in different occupations or from different societal groupings [52]. This suggests that digital curators do not see a problem in generating the content of one collection from the records deriving from the activities of different bodies or individuals, thus violating and distorting the evidential value inherent in the organic interrelationships that originally existed between records, human agents, their activities and the functions they were holding while creating records [53].

Thus, the conceptual model implemented in is based on the idea of archival record as an isolated, decontextualized item, in which only text content is taken as evidence, without any consideration of the associated contexts to provide insight into the processes, purposes, and activities that led to the creation of records [54]. Such a content-based approach does not allow any latitude in interpretation when one seeks to use digital surrogates as historical sources. Neither may one produce any causality analysis, nor is it possible to guarantee the integrity and reliability of the information contained in digital surrogates. Moreover, digitized copies become integrated in a strong conceptual basis. Some ideas are briefly articulated below. 5

: Conceptual Framework for Understanding the

Contemporary History

Some contributors to the Iranian archival databases criticize atti, being , tends to produce an

]. Bringing to the forefront digitized copies of archival material, they claim to produce an impartial, evidence-based data about the past. Yet, a closer look reveals quite clearly a strong conceptual frame built upon the following thematic lines: 1. The leading revolutionary and political force, and the only one which better reflects (and therefore protects) Iran national he foreign, especially Western evil influences competing for domination at Iran and aimed at destroying its culture. 3. The pre-revolutionary corrupt economic and political elite, especially that of the Pahlavi dynasty, supporting foreign evil influences because of money and privileges which is an undifferentiated and undefined category, subliminally associated to those .

These themes are in line with e Houchang [56], and fit in with the ideas about the past emerged after 1979 under the influence of new ideological references established by Ayatollah Khomeini and his clerical followers, namely the concept of velayat-e faqih [57]. A nuanced analysis is required. These major themes are interlinked and completing each other. They are introduced, for example, through the massive posting online of a certain type of records, namely financial documentation and lists of properties and jewelry of the Pahlavi dynasty [58]; or through highlighting a particular social group, namely Shia clergy which is often discussed in relation to the protest movement before 1979 [59]; or else through the powerful visual images transmitting signals about the individuals concerned [60]. (brief introductory notices, analytical articles, transcripts of testimonies and interviews) strengthens the baseline for understanding digital copies of archival material. I o categorize individuals through honorary titles ( great , servant , popular , martyr great life ) or through remarks diminishing their value. While little digital copies relate to the 1980s, the 1979 revolution is extremely present. In fact, this is a major methodological problem. actively through the revolution as the culminating point and the logical outcome, thus , and eliminating those who do not fit with this representation models. 6

Conclusion

Lacking transparency and openness of process, the online archival databases maintained by the heritage and research institutions of the IRI remain a subjective exercise. Contexts in which the original records were created, their primary functions and evolution of their life cycle are not documented and left unconsidered. The role of human agents in assembling digital surrogates together emerges as the major determinant of the categories on which the digital collections are created. This suggests selectivity, which involves privileging of some issues and interpretations over others. Indeed, the b interpreting public out to be very hazy. Archival documents are removed from repositories and brought created environment, where the interpretations of the past are constructed through the emotional and imagin , which relies on the ideological references of today and extremely simplifies causalities and processes of the past. and history of Iran proposed by the Ministry of Science and Education. See the 1970 archive law. Article 4. 18. The 1970 archive law. Article 6. 19. There was only one exception. However, it has not addressed the lack of clarity on a disclosure procedure to be implemented after 40 years, and provided an extra layer of secrecy. The Ministry of War has been excluded from the provisions of the 1970 archive law (Article 8). Its records should be managed at the discretion of the competent body formed by the Ministry. Thus, the law made the military records more secretive. Thus, the military secrets have been given a special place within the state secrecy issues. 20. Penal Code on disclosure and release of confidential and secret government information [Qânun-e Majâzât-e Enteshâr va Afshâye Asnâd-e Mehrmâneh va Sari-e Dolati], ratified on February 1975 (Bahman 1353). Text of Law, https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/97196, last accessed 2021/06/16. Bylaw on safeguarding secret and confidential government documents endorsed on December 1975 (Dey 1354). See an unofficial English translation in Article 19: Iran: Review of the Publication and Free Access to Information Act 2009. Legal analysis, p. 52 (2017). Text of analysis, https://www.article19.org/resources/iranreview-of-the-publication-and-free-access-to-information-act-2009-2/, last accessed 2021/06/16. 21. Whose disclosure was against the interests of the state, with two sub-levels of the unlawful disclosure that would cause irreparable damage, first, to the foundation of the government and the bedrock of the regime, and, second, to public interest and national security. 22. Whose disclosure was against special administrative interests of the government bodies, also including two sub-levels of the unlawful disclosure that would, first, disrupt the orderly functioning of the bodies, and, second, cause internal turmoil in the bodies. 23. Azizi, Q.: Âzâd-e Sâzi va Dastresi be Asnâd [Public Release and Access to Documents].

Faslnâme-ye Ârshiv-e Melli [National Archives Quarterly] 4, 6 (1394/2015). 24. [Qânun-e Enteshâr va Dastresi t]. Text of Law,

https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/780303, last accessed 2021/06/16. 25. Namely, the bylaws adopted in July 2015 (Mordad 1394), September 2015 (Shahrivar 1394), May 2018 (Khordad 1397) and April 2020 (Farvardin 1399). Text of Bylaws, https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/937940, https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/935407, https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/1150862, https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/1528486, last accessed 2021/06/16.

Interestingly enough, the bylaw adopted in November 2014 (Azar 1393) refers to the acts regarding ernment in 1975 (Article 1, d). See English translation of the 2014 bylaw in Article 19: Iran: Review of the Publication and Free Access to Information Act 2009. Legal analysis, pp. 44-47 (2017). Text of analysis, https://www.article19.org/resources/iran-review-of-thepublication-and-free-access-to-information-act-2009-2/, last accessed 2021/06/16. the time limits regarding the removal of secrecy and confidentiality of the government documents, no regulations were made on this point before the 1979 revolution. Also, the legislation on access to documents in I.R. Iran is appeared to be a continuation of the 28. The 2009 Free Access to Information Act. Articles 13 and 17. 29. According to the 2009 Act (Article 13), accessing classified information would be subject to specific laws. Though to date, there are still no bylaws regulating time limits and exceptions. 30. The 2009 Free Access to Information Act. Article 18. 31. The 2009 Free Access to Information Act. Article 5. 32. Aghaie, K.S.: Islamist Historiography in Post-Revolutionary Iran. In: Atabaki, T. (ed.): Iran in the 20th century: Historiography and Political Culture, p. 259. 1st ed. I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, Iran Heritage Foundation, London, New York (2009). See also one of the first reviews of the phenomenon of publication of document collections in the IRI since the 1979 revolution: Ettehadieh (Nezam Mafi), M., Bayat, K.: The Reza Shah Period: Document Collections Recently Published in Iran. Iranian Studies 26(3/4), 419-428 (1993). DOI: 10.1080/00210869308701813. 33. The 2009 Free Access to Information Act. Article 4. Confirmed by the 2015 bylaw. Article 5. 34. Thus, the Islamic Revolution Documents Center (IRDC) was established in 1981 with the aim to write the history of Islamic Revolution and to gather documents and memoires of the revolutionary movement. IRDC Homepage, http://www.irdc.ir/, last accessed 2021/06/16.

The Institute for Iranian Contemporary Historical Studies (IICHS) finds its origin in 1986, when the heir of the Pahlavi Foundation, the Mostazafan Foundation, created the Institute for Cultural Research and Studies with the aim to keep the documents requisitioned and used during political trials. IICHS Homepage, http://www.iichs.ir/, last accessed 2021/06/16.

The Political Studies and Research Institute (PSRI) was created in 1988 by a group of volunteers willing of the Iranian history. PSRI Homepage, http://irpsri.com/, last accessed 2021/06/16. 35. The Center of Historical Documents Survey (CHDS) was established in 1993 on the basis of , known as SAVAK, and kept by the Ministry of Intelligence of the Islamic Republic. CHDS Homepage, http://historydocuments.ir/, last accessed 2021/06/16.

The Islamic Revolution Information Center (IRIC) was established in 2013 by the Islamic Revolution Literature Office, created in 1993. IRIC Homepage, http://22bahman.ir, last accessed 2021/06/16.

The History Research Foundation of Iran (HRFI) started to work in 2003. HRFI Homepage, http://bonyadtarikhbook.ir, last accessed 2021/06/16. 36. Chehabi, H.E.: The Paranoid Style in Iranian Historiography. In: Atabaki, T. (ed.): Iran in the 20th century: Historiography and Political Culture, p. 165. 1st ed. I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, Iran Heritage Foundation, London, New York (2009). 37. For reference see Tajmazinani, A.: From Cultural Revolution to Cultural Engineering: Cultural Policy Post-Revolutionary Iran. 1st ed. Routledge, London (2017). Fazeli, N.: Politics of Culture in Iran: Anthropology, Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century. 1st ed. Routledge, New York (2006). I thank one of my team colleagues working on Cultural Revolution in Iran for pointing out these studies. 38. Thus, the database of the CHDS, an authoritative institution responsible for the historical intelligence records, does not provide any information on the individuals involved in its administration. lected archival documents: collection of the SAVAK documents on the ideas and activities of Jalal Al-e Ahmad (1923-1969), an Iranian thinker and writer who produced a critique of western technology and its influence in Iran, https://historydocuments.ir/?page=post&id=3379, last accessed 2021/06/27. The CHDS database provide also a big number of very large thematic coll are also rendered completely anonymous.

See example: the first volume of the Taleghani (1911

CHDS database, thematic collections of digitized documents regarding the Shia clerics, politicians, or Islamic revolution, https://historydocuments.org/sanad/?page=books&id=&start=1, last accessed 2021/06/20. 48. See examples of collections randomly associating digital surrogates:

IICHS database, http://www.iichs.ir/p/Photo.aspx?sid=3&title=%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE-%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF, last accessed 2021/06/20.

IRDC database, http://www.irdc.ir/fa/services/5, last accessed 2021/06/20.

CHDS database, https://historydocuments.ir/?page=documents&id=18, last accessed 2021/06/20. 49. Photograph collections are also organized thematically or randomly. See examples: IICHS database, numbered photo collection, http://www.iichs.ir/p/Photo.aspx?sid=4&title=%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1, last accessed 2021/06/20. IICHS database, thematic photo collections regarding the Shia clerics or figures of the Islamic revolution recognized as such by the current political regime, http://www.iichs.ir/p/Photo.aspx?sid=9&title=%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%D 8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87-%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3, last accessed 2021/06/20.

IRDC database, thematic photo collection with regard to the demonstrations of June 5 and 6, 1963, in Iran protesting against the arrest of Ayatollah Khomeini after his denouncement of several reforms started by the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and designed to be a way toward modernization, which was considered by several senior Iranian Shia religious scholars to be a threat to Islam, http://www.irdc.ir/fa/news/6889/%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85-15%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF-1342-%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1, last accessed 2021/06/20. 50. Duranti, L.: Whose truth? Records and archives as evidence in the era of post-truth and disinformation. In: Brown, C. (ed.): Archival Futures, p. 21. 1st ed. Facet Publishing, London (2018). DOI: 10.29085/9781783302192.003. 51. Neither relevant archival references (titles, reference codes) nor important contextual elements (information on creators, provenencial context, chain of custody, etc.) are available. Some databases provide . IICHS database, http://www.iichs.ir/s/14019, last accessed 2021/06/20. Move the mouse pointer over the JPEG files to display small acThis is not a general practice, and it comes up with more questions than answers. The compositions little in common, and their meaning is unclear, also because the archival finding aids regarding physical archival holdings are never supplied. 52. The following collection in the IICHS database is a telling example: Collection 43, http://www.iichs.ir/s/5818, last accessed 2021/06/28. It contains, first, several documents relating to the Persian constitution of 1906, created under Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar (1896-1907) and abolished by Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar (1907-1909), with the subsequent dissolution of the National Consultative Assembly (Majles). A statement of protest made by a group of Persian patriots against William Morgan Shuster (1877-1960), an American lawyer appointed as treasurer-general of Persia by Majles in 1911, falls in some

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10. Atabaki , T. (ed.): Iran in the 20th century: Historiography and Political Culture . 1st ed. I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd , Iran Heritage Foundation, London, New York ( 2009 ).

11. Here are some references: Berman, I.: Iranian Devolution: Tehran Fights the Digital Future . World Affairs 178 ( 3 ), 51 - 57 ( 2015 ). Sulmeyer, M. : Cyberspace: A Growing Domain for Iranian Disruption . In: Hicks, K.H. , Dalton , M.G. (eds.): Deterring Iran after the Nuclear Deal (CSIS Reports) , pp. 34 - 43 . Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Boulder, New York, London ( 2017 ). Brooking, E.T. , Kianpour , S. : Iranian Digital Influence Efforts: Guerrilla Broadcasting for the Twenty-First Century . Atlantic Council, Washington, DC ( 2020 ).

12. The Law on the establishment of the Iran National Documents Organization [Qânun-e Ta -e Sâzmân-e Asnâd-e Melli-e Irân]. Text of the 1970 archive law , https://rc.majlis.ir/fa/law/show/96457, last accessed 2021 /06/16. A photocopy of the 1970 archive law, although of law quality, was made available by the Iranian historian, Iraj Afshar, who has actively contributed to the drafting of the law: Afshar, I.: Layehe-ye Qânuniye Bâygâni-ye Koll-e Keshvar [The Bill of the Documents of the Whole Country] . Faslnâme-ye Ganjine-ye Asnâd [Treasure of Documents Quarterly] 67 , 113 - 120 ( 1386 / 2007 ). See a critical testimony about fifteen years of the preparatory work carried out by the Iranian state officials, intellectuals, and foreign experts in order to create the Iran National Archives, provided by the Deputy Archivist of the United States, Herbert E. Angel, who has been actively involved in this process : Angel, H.E. : Iran as a Case Study . The American Archivist 35 ( 2 ), 173 - 181 ( 1972 ). The following doctoral thesis in Russian language, while lacking to some extent a critical evaluation, provides a general overview useful for reference purposes: Heder , N.G. : Istoriia fo (1954-2012 gg.) [History of the Establishment of the National Archives of Iran and their Structure] . PhD thesis . Tajik National University, Dushanbe ( 2016 ).

13. The 1970 archive law . Article 1 .

14. Berger , S.: The role of national archives in constructing national master narratives in Europe . Archival Science 13 , 1 - 22 ( 2013 ). DOI: 10 .1007/s10502-012-9188-z.

15. The 1970 archive law . Articles 5 and 6.

16. The 1970 archive law . Article 6 .

17. After much debate, it was decided that the Iran cil would comprise of the following individuals: Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Culture and Arts , Attorney General, Secretary General of the Administrative and Employment Affairs Organization of Iran, Prosecutor of the Audit Office, two experts in culture

26. See detailed discussion in the study cited above: Article 19: Iran: Review of the Publication and Free Access to Information Act 2009 . Legal analysis ( 2017 ). Text of analysis , https://www.article19. org/resources/iran-review-of-the-publication-and-free-access-toinformation- act- 2009-2/, last accessed 2021 /06/16.

27. The 2009 Free Access to Information Act . Articles 14 and 16 . 1979 revolution, https://historydocuments.org/sanad/?page=books_doc&id=65, last accessed 2021 /06/27. Neither introduction, nor individual pages of

39. In that respect, the IICHS database provides for some sections the names of peoples selecting archival documents to be put online in digital form and, consequently, creating contextual information . See examples: http://www.iichs.ir/s/1803, http://www.iichs.ir/s/1811, http://www.iichs.ir/s/19529, last accessed 2021 /06/27.

40. Thus, the CHDS database provides the number of times the Web page with digital surrogates and their born digital transcripts was viewed, but no comments from audience were published . See example, https://historydocuments.ir/?page=post&id=1755, last accessed 2021 /06/27.

41. To use the Camille Paloque- Paloque- Berges , C. : Les sources nativement numériques pour les sciences humaines et sociales . Histoire@Politique [en ligne] 30 , 231 ( 2016 ). DOI: 10 .3917/HP.030.0221.

42. The IICHS statement , http://www.iichs.ir/Pages/2/Page/%D8% AF%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1% D9 % 87 - % D9%85%D8%A7/, last accessed 2021 /06/20.

43. The CHDS website, while stating that the aim of the online release of archives is to facilitate access to historical sources, also quotes Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei mentioning that the world lives e previous sentence explains that -wishers of the great and historical nation of Iran intend CHDS statement : https://historydocuments.ir/?page=about, last accessed 2021 /06/20.

44. Sulmeyer , M. : Cyberspace: A Growing Domain for Iranian Disruption . In: Hicks, K.H. , Dalton , M.G. (eds.): Deterring Iran after the Nuclear Deal (CSIS Reports) , p. 34 . Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Boulder, New York, London ( 2017 ).

45. Yeo , G. : The Conceptual Fonds and the Physical Collection . Archivaria 73 ( April ), 45 ( 2012 ). https://archivaria.ca/index.php/archivaria/article/view/13384, last accessed 2021 /07/01.

46. Weinberger , D. : Transparency Is the New Objectivity. Joho the Blog ( 2009 ), https://www.hyperorg.com/blogger/2009/07/19/transparency -is-the-new-objectivity/ , last accessed 2021 /06/20. Yeo, G.: Trust and Context in Cyberspace . Archives and Records 34 ( 2 ), 218 ( 2013 ). DOI: 10.1080/23257962 . 2013 . 825207 .

47. See examples of thematic collections: IICHS database, thematic collections of digitized documents regarding the life and activities of the Pahlavi family or Shia clerics, especially high-ranking Twelver Shia clergy, Ayatollahs, Iran in the world wars, nationalization of the Iranian oil industry led by the future prime minister of Iran, Mohammad Mosaddegh , in 1951 , cases of famine, Iranian police, land reform in the 1960s, etc . http://www.iichs.ir/p/Photo.aspx?sid=54&title=% D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C% D8%B4%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87-%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF, last accessed 2021 /06/20.