=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3019/p33
|storemode=property
|title=Advocating for Linked Archives: the
benefits to users of Archival Linked Data
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3019/LinkedArchives_2021_paper_6.pdf
|volume=Vol-3019
|authors=Ashleigh Hawkins
}}
==Advocating for Linked Archives: the
benefits to users of Archival Linked Data==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3019/LinkedArchives_2021_paper_6.pdf
Advocating for Linked
LinkedArchives:
Archives:the
theBenefits
benefits to
to Users
users of
*
Archival
Archival Linked Data
Linked Data*
Ashleigh Hawkins [0000-0003-4788-5398]
University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
a.h.hawkins@liverpool.ac.uk
Abstract. Linked Data (LD) has been explored as a means of publishing and increasing
access to archival data for over a decade. A growing number of case studies has demon-
strated the ability to make both archival metadata and the contents of records available
as LD, and recent large-scale projects suggest a burgeoning of investment in the tools
and infrastructure necessary for Archival Linked Data (ALD). However, LD remains
under-examined in archival scholarship; there is a heavy emphasis on technical aspects
of the production of LD, but little consideration of how it benefits the users of archives.
This paper details the benefits of ALD for those users, identifying four ways in which
they benefit through increased and improved access to archival data, and through
$/'¶Vfacilitation of novel means of interacting with, and interrogating, archival data.
ALD enables archive services to meet the increasingly sophisticated needs of digital
native users and allows them to keep pace as technology evolves to satisfy future users.
The identification and increased understanding of these user benefits can be used to
advocate for investment in development of the tools and infrastructure required to en-
sure equitable access to ALD, and provide support for the call for increased collabora-
tion in the preparation, publication, and provision of access to ALD. Collaboration with
digital humanities scholars and practitioners provides many opportunities to further de-
velop that infrastructure, increase the production of ALD datasets, and move closer
towards realizing the full potential of LD for archives.
Keywords: Linked Archives, Linked Data, Digital Humanities, GLAM.
1 Introduction
Linked Data (LD) has been explored as a means of publishing and increasing access to
archival data for over a decade. A growing number of case studies demonstrate organ-
L]DWLRQV¶ ability to make both archival metadata and the contents of records available
as Archival Linked Data (ALD), and some of these studies have articulated various
benefits of this approach. Recent large-scale projects, such as the International Council
RQ$UFKLYHV¶GHYHORSPHQWRIWKH Records in Contexts Ontology (RiC-O), a LD render-
ing of the new archival descriptive standard [1], the µTowards a National Collection¶
project research to virtually unify UK GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Mu-
seums) collections using, among other technologies, Persistent Identifiers (PIDs) [2],
(XURSHDQD¶V/'ZHEVHUYLFH through which all Europeana datasets can be accessed [3],
DQG2&/&¶V series of LD research projects, provide evidence of the burgeoning of
investment in the tools and infrastructure necessary for ALD, and for the use of LD in
the GLAM sector more widely [4].
______________
* Copyright 2021 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0
International (CC BY 4.0).
2
Despite this explosion of interest, ALD remains under-examined. As a relatively new
technology, there is perhaps understandably, a heavy emphasis on the technical aspects
± WKHµKRZ¶RI$/'EXW little consideration of WKHµZK\¶i.e., how it benefits the users
of archives. This paper is a first step towards a definitive, structured statement of those
benefits of ALD for the users of archives, extrapolating from a wide range of published
case studies, scholarly literature, and project-related grey literature.
After briefly examining related work, and outlining the research approach, the paper
then presents a subsection of the results of a larger PhD study of the benefits of ALD
which identified benefits to archival data, the archives sector (both reported elsewhere),
and to users. This paper focuses on four ways in which users are benefited by ALD
increasing and improving access to archival data and facilitating novel means of inter-
action and interrogation. Finally, it considers how evidence of the benefits of ALD can
be used to advocate for investment in the tools and infrastructure necessary for Linked
Archives, and argues for increased collaboration between archival and digital humani-
ties scholars and practitioners in the preparation, publication, and provision of access
to ALD.
2 Related Work
There has been considerable documentation of the implementation of LD in GLAM [5-
12], however, this tends to be dominated by activity within the library sector; there has
been little analysis explicitly of ALD, or of the benefits to users within the archive
sector specifically. Soon after the introduction of LD in 2006 [13], case studies began
to emerge of its potential for application in the archives sector [14-17]. In the subse-
quent fifteen years, a substantial body of associated research can be identified, emerg-
ing from both research and practitioner perspectives. Karen F. Gracy¶Vanalysis of the
opportunities and challenges of implementing LD identified user benefits which in-
cluded being able to connect seamlessly to related information, to search across multi-
ple fonds, and to gain an enhanced understanding of archival records and records crea-
tors [18]. In a scholarly overview of early trends in ALD practice, Jinfang Niu deter-
mined that many of the methods of accessing LD are beyond the capabilities of, what
she terms, µgeneric users¶ of archives [19]. However, she predicted that once ALD prac-
tice matures, and easier-to-use LD user interfaces are developed, users will benefit from
better information services and the ability to formulate more complex queries.
Several ALD projects have been motivated by a wish to improve the general user
experience, or to meet the needs of particular users [20-24]. The case studies resulting
from these projects demonstrate a wide range of user benefits, though centering on de-
veloping data visualization and analytical tools to interrogate ALD datasets [23, 26-
28], developing web-based user interfaces [20, 25-31], and on improving the user ex-
perience of information retrieval systems [32]. A limited number of case studies docu-
mented projects involving collaboration with users [20-21, 25]. Of the project case
studies available in English, the majority originate from Europe, North America, and
3
Australia, with the UK, US and Finland leading the way. This suggests that the appli-
cation of LD within the archives sector remains a research activity primarily confined
to the global north and has not yet entered the mainstream of archival practice.
3 Research Approach
The research findings discussed in this paper are a subset of broader PhD research into
the use of LD in a business archives setting, a project funded under the UK Arts and
+XPDQLWLHV5HVHDUFK&RXQFLO¶V Collaborative Doctoral Award scheme. One of the ob-
jectives of that PhD was to develop a comprehensive and evidence-based record of the
benefits to users of ALD given the lack of such noted above. Constructivist Grounded
Theory was used to analyze a corpus of ninety-four sources of literature (scholarly, case
study and project-related grey literature) relating to LD in the fields of Archive Studies,
Records Management, Library and Information Studies, Museum Studies, Semantic
Web Studies, Archaeology, History and the Digital Humanities, and related praxis,
which covered a data range of 2011 to 2021. These were selected during multiple peri-
ods of literature search during 2020-2021 using the EBSCO, Google Search, Google
Scholar, and Scopus databases to identify literature which met the following criteria:
1. only studies which include more than a passing reference to Linked
Data/Linked Open Data/the Semantic Web
2. for scholarly literature: only published articles or conference papers
3. for project-based literature: published articles, conference papers, presentation
slides, websites and blogs
4. for reports: only of results of surveys of Linked Data practitioners
5. only studies published in the English language
&RQVWUXFWLYLVW*URXQGHG7KHRU\LV³D ZD\RIFRQGXFWLQJLQTXLU\WKDWVKDSHVGDWD
FROOHFWLRQDQGHPSKDVL]HVDQDO\VLV´ [33 p26]. It involves the iterative gathering and
analysis of data using successive rounds of coding (initial, focused, and theoretical) and
comparative methods which lead to the construction of conceptual categories, the iden-
tification of the relationships between them, and the construction of a theory grounded
in the data, and hence a grounded theory. The author used Atlas.ti, a Computer Assisted
Qualitative Data Analysis Software, in conjunction with manual methods, to identify
and code articulations of the benefits of Linked Data within the source literature (see
Table 1 for example LQVWDQFHVRIWKHLQLWLDOFRGHµIDFLOLWDWLQJDUFKLYDODQDO\VLVUHVHDUFK
QRWSRVVLEOHPDQXDOO\¶ZKLFKZDVVXEVHTXHQWO\DVVLJQHGDVDSURSHUW\RIWKHIRFXVHG
code Facilitating New Methods of Engagement and Analysis). Through an iterative pro-
cess of successive rounds of comparing, categorizing and refining the codes and seek-
ing further data to extend the findings, the author identified fifteen benefits of Linked
Data for archives (focused codes) and their properties (initial codes). These were further
analysed to form three areas of benefit (conceptual categories) - empowering users,
enhancing data, and future-proofing the archives sector - with the former being the fo-
cus of this paper. The results of this analysis were triangulated using a virtual focus
group conducted with UK banking and financial services archivists in early 2021.
4
Table 1. Example instances of the benefit Facilitating New Methods of Engagement and Analy-
sis
Benefit Property Quote
Facilitating facilitating µ5HODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ LQGLYLGXDOV DQG LQVWLWXWLRQV
New Meth- archival social and professional, can be [sic] also be analyzed,
ods of En- analysis/re- GRFXPHQWHG DQG H[SORUHG«UHYHDOLQJ IRU WKH ILUVW
gagement search not time both the social and intellectual networks that in-
and Analysis possible formed practice in post-war Queensland, and the
manually GHSWKDQGFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHVH¶>S@
µ/LQNHG 'DWD FDQ DOVR EH XVHG LQ FRPELQDWLRQ ZLWK
data mining and information visualization techniques
to facilitate analysis of archival information dispersed
across many collections and institutions; such tech-
niques will help researchers expand the breadth and
depth of archival analysis beyond what is possible
ZLWKPDQXDOPHWKRGVǦ>S @
µ/LQNLQJKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVDQGUHFRUGVWRSODFHDO
lows synthesized, seamless access across heterogene-
ous archival data sets and facilitates novel ways of be-
ing able to search and browse large-scale archival col-
OHFWLRQV¶>S@
4 Results
It is clear that ALD meets the needs of a wide range of users and in multiple ways, with
1LXIRUH[DPSOHFODLPLQJLW³ZLOOJUHDWO\LPSURYHWKHFDSDELOLW\RIDUFKLYHVLQVDWLV
I\LQJUHVHDUFKHUV¶QHHGV´ [19 p95] There is considerable evidence that LD meets the
needs of professional researchers, including historians, arts and humanities researchers,
and digital humanities scholars, as it ³SURYLGHVWKHW\SHRIIOH[LELOLW\WKDWUHVearchers
require to quickly incorporate new information and data structures that are necessary
as their research progresses.´>34 p254] Other findings have suggested that LD meets
the needs of Indigenous communities, for example by facilitating archive services¶
work with and in support of Indigenous communities, enabling WKRVH FRPPXQLWLHV¶
ownership, control, access, and possession of records with a shared provenance or
which have been created about, rather than with or by, such communities, and facilitat-
ing the creation of interfaces which can be tailored to the needs of the community by
optimising resource-discovery and rights-management [22, 35]. As well as categories
of users, needs are also met on an individual level, for example by using user profiles
to contextualise and customise search results for the individual [36]. The following four
sections give a structured overview of four identified ways in which users benefit from
ALD.
5
4.1 Facilitating New Methods of Engagement and Analysis
Succinctly articulating a claim for ALD made on multiple occasions across the litera-
ture, in their introduction to Records in Contexts Daniel Pitti et al. argued that semantic
WHFKQRORJ\DQG/'³DOORZWKHXVHRIDUFKLYDOGDWDLQZD\VWKDWDIHZ\HDUVDJRwere
unimaginable or prohibitively difficult to do for both social and technological reasons.´
[37 p176] A significant benefit of publishing archival data as LD is that it is machine
readable; it is thus able to support semantic data automatic reasoning and analysis, per-
form analysis across disparate and dispersed corpora of data, query large volumes of
data, and offer new methods for discovering, engaging with, interpreting and using ar-
chival data. Such methods facilitate types of research which are not possible manually
and which previous digital methods have not enabled [14, 18, 26, 37-38]: they allow
users to construct more complex queries in ways not previously possible [28], enable
the detection of previously unidentified relationships within and across datasets and
collections, regardless of record format [25-27, 39], and allow for deeper analysis of
archival sources [39]. Adopting LD creates a digital research environment, opening up
archival data to natively digital methods, and supporting dynamic research methods.
There are further benefits in combining LD with other digital technologies in order to
expand the depth and breadth of possible archival analysis, including the incorporation
of graphical interfaces, data or text mining, data visualization, optical character recog-
nition (OCR), network analysis, natural language processing (NLP), and named entity
recognition (NER).
4.2 Improving User Experience by Linking to Other Data Sources
/'¶VPDFKLQHUHDGDELOLW\DQGLWVDELOLW\WRFRQQHFWGLVSDUDWHGDWDVHWVDQGUHYHDOUHOD
tionships across datasets improves the user experience by creating links to other sources
of data. ALD enables users to navigate seamlessly across datasets, to reuse, align and
enrich archival data, and to integrate it with data derived from other sources. Indeed,
referring to the work of the Linking Lives project, Jane Stevenson claimed that users
are benefited E\/'³FRQQHFW>LQJ@DUFKLYHVPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\WRWKHZLGHULQIRUPDWLRQ
landscape, bringing them together with other sources´>9 p14] In addition to the ben-
efits engendered by the general improvement in the quality of the research experience
there are also improvements in the process of information discovery. By creating links
to other data sources, the results of information discovery are richer and more mean-
ingful, the data surfaced is higher quality and more comprehensive, and new avenues
are provided for further exploration. For example, archival data is better contextualised
by it not being presented in isolation from data from other sources [18, 22, 29, 40]; such
contextualisation enables users to have a better understanding of the data and the ar-
chival objects they document. Furthermore, users benefit from the increased range of
information revealed to them, which might include further descriptive, contextual and
authority data (either internal administrative data previously not made publicly availa-
ble, or drawn from external sources) [18, 37, 40], and newly identified connections be-
tween collections and datasets [15, 18, 37-38, 40-42].
6
4.3 Improving the Search Process
Much of the literature documents improvements in the information search and retrieval
process as a result of adopting LD technologies. Niu claimed that adoption of LD could
³IXQGDPHQWDOO\FKDQJHWKH QDWXUHRILQIRUPDWLRQGLVFRYHU\LQ/$0V´> p84], and
there is widespread consensus that LD adoption increases the capabilities of the search
process, and improves its effectiveness, efficiency and precision [21, 23, 43-44]. The
search process is improved in a number of ways, including through improved content
querying, the ability to deliver richer, more meaningful, sophisticated and relevant
search results, which can be browsed at finer levels of granularity, and through retriev-
ing information otherwise overlooked through common techniques such as keyword
searching. More complex queries can be accommodated by the SPARQL query lan-
guage. With a single query, searches can be made across multiple collections, and nav-
igation across archival and non-archival sources of data is made possible [42, 44]. New
pathways into archival data are created, users can access and navigate archival data not
only in linear ways, but also serendipitously. As a result, the search time and associated
costs are reduced [21].
Furthermore, LD pushes archival data closer to the individual user, allowing them
to access data for their specific purposes more efficiently. It accommodates multiple
search methods, thus meeting the needs of different users. These methods include
SPARQL endpoints, LD web services and user interfaces which support entity, seman-
tic concept, or keyword search, browsing, and serendipitous search. Such LD user in-
terfaces can enable more complex filtering of search results and faceted results [45-47],
graphical representations and visualizations of data, such as statistical and map-based
visualizations [26, 41, 47], and auto-filling suggested search terms [23, 26]. LD can
also be embedded into catalogue data, thus making ALD also accessible via original
search interfaces and online catalogues [19].
4.4 Increasing Access to and Ease of Use of Archival Data
There is considerable evidence that adopting LD increases access to, and usage of, ar-
chival data, providing a powerful argument for archives services to engage with LD as
DPHDQVRIDFKLHYLQJWKHJRDORIµRSHQLQJXS¶WKHDUFKLYHV. The Open Metadata Path-
way project was not alone in its claim that one of the ways in which the project had
underlined the value of ALD was through increasing access and discovery [16]. Evi-
dence of high levels of access can be seen from the examples of the Finnish projects
BiographySampo, which had 43,000 distinct users during its first five months, and War-
Sampo, which reported 690,000 distinct users between 2015 and 2020 [24, 45]. ALD
extends the reach of archival catalogues and data, making data more widely available
and thus able to reach new and larger audiences. Furthermore, it has been suggested
that it enables archives to reach users who would not typically otherwise engage with
archives and archival data [44, 48], a further priority of the archives profession. LD
provides new entryways into archival data and increases access by making data share-
able, extensible, and reusable, and increasing the openness, visibility, and discoverabil-
ity of archival data.
7
Self-evidently, any initiative which makes archival data easier to access and use is
of great benefit to users. Indeed, increasing the ease of use of archival data is a common
motivating factor of ALD activity. Given that any archival data is made easier to use
by its increased availability, visibility and discoverability, the process of converting
archival data and publishing it as ALD enriches it, as well as creating unprecedented
opportunities for its discovery, interpretation, and use [27, 39, 43], including facilitating
multilingual access [49-50]. The possibility of linking between data increases accessi-
bility, making it easier to access related information. Users are able to access data more
easily for their specific purposes without requiring specific technical knowledge of ar-
chival jargon, cataloguing standards or LD in order to efficiently access information [8,
19, 50].
5 Discussion
Examination of ALD scholarship and practice-based case studies has provided substan-
tial evidence of the benefits of ALD for users, benefits which can be used as a powerful
tool to advocate for investment in ALD. However, many of the studies cited in Sections
2 and 4 also highlight that it is not enough just to make ALD available; for users to fully
benefit from the potential provided by ALD, it needs to be accessible in multiple ways
and serve multiple research purposes and methods. The creation of accessible LD web
services, user interfaces and analytical tools is essential to enable users with a range of
experience and research interests to access, interrogate and manipulate ALD without
the need to develop expertise in LD or to master SPARQL (SPARQL Protocol And
Query Language), the difficulties of which are well documented in ALD scholarship
[19, 44]. Already, µtraditional¶ descriptive cataloguing no longer meets the needs of
some user groups [51], a situation likely to become rapidly more commonplace; at the
same time the actual needs of users in the ALD environment are little understood and
ALD surveys have primarily focused on implementers.
The principal source of user needs in the UK is the UK and Ireland Archives and
5HFRUGV $VVRFLDWLRQ¶V EL-annual Survey of Visitors to Archives, most recently con-
ducted in 2018 [51]. Respondents to the survey are in person visitors to participating
archives services over the age of seventeen; there is no equivalent survey for online
users. This report reveals an increase in visitors aged 17-44, and that there are consist-
ently low levels of satisfaction with both the usability and quality of online catalogues,
and with the quality and provision of access to other online sources. The report also
acknowledges that the demands of users are becoming more sophisticated. LD offers a
viable means of meeting the increasingly sophisticated needs of digitally native users.
Through the ability to create multiple applications and search interfaces over a single
ALD dataset, LD enables archives services to provide access to archival data in a man-
ner tailored to meet the needs of specific, or multiple, types of user, and also empowers
users to create their own tools and interfaces. Furthermore, as user needs continue to
evolve in conjunction with technological advances, LD also enables the needs of future
users to be met [25], users who, *UDF\VXJJHVWV³ZLOOZDQWWRQRWMust discover new
information, but understand the connections among the various entities associated with
ZKDWLVEHLQJGHVFULEHG´ [40 p359].
8
Collaboration is crucial to making archival data available, discoverable, and acces-
sible as LD, and has clearly become commonplace in ALD activity [12]. However,
users are rarely involved in such collaborations, and those who are tend to be academic
researchers. A challenge of collaborating with other types of users is likely to be that
general awareness of LD remains low, and user-friendly tools for the generation and
use of LD are in their infancy. However, there is one group of users with whom it would
be especially beneficial for archives and other GLM institutions to collaborate, digital
humanities scholars. The Digital Humanities utilizes computational methods to inter-
rogate large digital datasets in order to address an ever-expanding range of humanities
questions. Digital humanities scholarship sits at the intersection of computational tech-
nologies and humanities scholarship [53], and has changed humanities research by be-
coming more interdisciplinary and collaborative [54-55]. LD is becoming increasingly
important in digital humanities scholarship as a means of creating, publishing, and an-
alyzing GLAM data [37].
Significantly, digital humanities LD studies using archival data clearly demonstrate
that investment in LD tools and services for the purposes of digital humanities research
benefits users in general [24, 28, 34, 56-58]. As an inherently interdisciplinary and
collaborative field with experience of a range of digital methods that is information and
data-driven, requires access to large-scale digital datasets, and has a demonstrable
interest in, and impetus for, making archival data more digitally accessible, there is a
natural synergy between digital humanities scholars and the archives sector which
could be built upon in order to progress towards widespread adoption of ALD, and in
so doing, ensure that archives services are better able to meet the needs of users.
6 Conclusions
³7KHFKDOOHQJHVRIGHVLJQLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWLQJVWDQGDUGVDQGV\V
tems that will satisfy many different users remain difficult to resolve
VDWLVIDFWRULO\IRUDOODUFKLYHVDQGXVHUVRIDUFKLYDOFROOHFWLRQV´>
p278]
There is overwhelming evidence that ALD benefits users in multiple ways. However,
there is currently little understanding of the needs of users with specific regards to ALD,
and users are not commonly involved in ALD activity. As a profession, we need to
better understand the benefits of ALD, including those particularly advantageous to
users. Such knowledge is essential in order to advocate for investment in the often re-
source-intensive process of generating ALD and developing the web-services, user in-
terfaces and tools necessary to make it accessible, usable, and capable of meeting the
needs of the wide range of users and current non-users of archives. Furthermore, exten-
sive user testing is crucial to improve the discovery and usability of ALD [59]. In ena-
EOLQJDUFKLYHVWRµRSHQXS¶WKHLUFROOHFWLons, attract new audiences, and increase acces-
sibility, ALD can progress the archives sector towards providing access to FAIR (Find-
able, Accessible, Interoperable, Re-usable) digital data [60]. However, interdisciplinary
collaboration is vital for the successful implementation of ALD. Collaboration with
9
digital humanities scholars provides many opportunities to further develop the infra-
structure required for ALD and increase the production of ALD datasets, both of which
will benefit users more widely, and move the archives sector closer towards realizing
the full potential of LD for archives.
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