Advocating for Linked LinkedArchives: Archives:the theBenefits benefits to to Users users of * Archival Archival Linked Data Linked Data* Ashleigh Hawkins [0000-0003-4788-5398] University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK a.h.hawkins@liverpool.ac.uk Abstract. Linked Data (LD) has been explored as a means of publishing and increasing access to archival data for over a decade. A growing number of case studies has demon- strated the ability to make both archival metadata and the contents of records available as LD, and recent large-scale projects suggest a burgeoning of investment in the tools and infrastructure necessary for Archival Linked Data (ALD). However, LD remains under-examined in archival scholarship; there is a heavy emphasis on technical aspects of the production of LD, but little consideration of how it benefits the users of archives. This paper details the benefits of ALD for those users, identifying four ways in which they benefit through increased and improved access to archival data, and through $/'¶Vfacilitation of novel means of interacting with, and interrogating, archival data. ALD enables archive services to meet the increasingly sophisticated needs of digital native users and allows them to keep pace as technology evolves to satisfy future users. The identification and increased understanding of these user benefits can be used to advocate for investment in development of the tools and infrastructure required to en- sure equitable access to ALD, and provide support for the call for increased collabora- tion in the preparation, publication, and provision of access to ALD. Collaboration with digital humanities scholars and practitioners provides many opportunities to further de- velop that infrastructure, increase the production of ALD datasets, and move closer towards realizing the full potential of LD for archives. Keywords: Linked Archives, Linked Data, Digital Humanities, GLAM. 1 Introduction Linked Data (LD) has been explored as a means of publishing and increasing access to archival data for over a decade. A growing number of case studies demonstrate organ- L]DWLRQV¶ ability to make both archival metadata and the contents of records available as Archival Linked Data (ALD), and some of these studies have articulated various benefits of this approach. Recent large-scale projects, such as the International Council RQ$UFKLYHV¶GHYHORSPHQWRIWKH Records in Contexts Ontology (RiC-O), a LD render- ing of the new archival descriptive standard [1], the µTowards a National Collection¶ project research to virtually unify UK GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Mu- seums) collections using, among other technologies, Persistent Identifiers (PIDs) [2], (XURSHDQD¶V/'ZHEVHUYLFH through which all Europeana datasets can be accessed [3], DQG2&/&¶V series of LD research projects, provide evidence of the burgeoning of investment in the tools and infrastructure necessary for ALD, and for the use of LD in the GLAM sector more widely [4]. ______________ * Copyright 2021 for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). 2 Despite this explosion of interest, ALD remains under-examined. As a relatively new technology, there is perhaps understandably, a heavy emphasis on the technical aspects ± WKHµKRZ¶RI$/'EXW little consideration of WKHµZK\¶i.e., how it benefits the users of archives. This paper is a first step towards a definitive, structured statement of those benefits of ALD for the users of archives, extrapolating from a wide range of published case studies, scholarly literature, and project-related grey literature. After briefly examining related work, and outlining the research approach, the paper then presents a subsection of the results of a larger PhD study of the benefits of ALD which identified benefits to archival data, the archives sector (both reported elsewhere), and to users. This paper focuses on four ways in which users are benefited by ALD increasing and improving access to archival data and facilitating novel means of inter- action and interrogation. Finally, it considers how evidence of the benefits of ALD can be used to advocate for investment in the tools and infrastructure necessary for Linked Archives, and argues for increased collaboration between archival and digital humani- ties scholars and practitioners in the preparation, publication, and provision of access to ALD. 2 Related Work There has been considerable documentation of the implementation of LD in GLAM [5- 12], however, this tends to be dominated by activity within the library sector; there has been little analysis explicitly of ALD, or of the benefits to users within the archive sector specifically. Soon after the introduction of LD in 2006 [13], case studies began to emerge of its potential for application in the archives sector [14-17]. In the subse- quent fifteen years, a substantial body of associated research can be identified, emerg- ing from both research and practitioner perspectives. Karen F. Gracy¶Vanalysis of the opportunities and challenges of implementing LD identified user benefits which in- cluded being able to connect seamlessly to related information, to search across multi- ple fonds, and to gain an enhanced understanding of archival records and records crea- tors [18]. In a scholarly overview of early trends in ALD practice, Jinfang Niu deter- mined that many of the methods of accessing LD are beyond the capabilities of, what she terms, µgeneric users¶ of archives [19]. However, she predicted that once ALD prac- tice matures, and easier-to-use LD user interfaces are developed, users will benefit from better information services and the ability to formulate more complex queries. Several ALD projects have been motivated by a wish to improve the general user experience, or to meet the needs of particular users [20-24]. The case studies resulting from these projects demonstrate a wide range of user benefits, though centering on de- veloping data visualization and analytical tools to interrogate ALD datasets [23, 26- 28], developing web-based user interfaces [20, 25-31], and on improving the user ex- perience of information retrieval systems [32]. A limited number of case studies docu- mented projects involving collaboration with users [20-21, 25]. Of the project case studies available in English, the majority originate from Europe, North America, and 3 Australia, with the UK, US and Finland leading the way. This suggests that the appli- cation of LD within the archives sector remains a research activity primarily confined to the global north and has not yet entered the mainstream of archival practice. 3 Research Approach The research findings discussed in this paper are a subset of broader PhD research into the use of LD in a business archives setting, a project funded under the UK Arts and +XPDQLWLHV5HVHDUFK&RXQFLO¶V Collaborative Doctoral Award scheme. One of the ob- jectives of that PhD was to develop a comprehensive and evidence-based record of the benefits to users of ALD given the lack of such noted above. Constructivist Grounded Theory was used to analyze a corpus of ninety-four sources of literature (scholarly, case study and project-related grey literature) relating to LD in the fields of Archive Studies, Records Management, Library and Information Studies, Museum Studies, Semantic Web Studies, Archaeology, History and the Digital Humanities, and related praxis, which covered a data range of 2011 to 2021. These were selected during multiple peri- ods of literature search during 2020-2021 using the EBSCO, Google Search, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases to identify literature which met the following criteria: 1. only studies which include more than a passing reference to Linked Data/Linked Open Data/the Semantic Web 2. for scholarly literature: only published articles or conference papers 3. for project-based literature: published articles, conference papers, presentation slides, websites and blogs 4. for reports: only of results of surveys of Linked Data practitioners 5. only studies published in the English language &RQVWUXFWLYLVW*URXQGHG7KHRU\LV³D ZD\RIFRQGXFWLQJLQTXLU\WKDWVKDSHVGDWD FROOHFWLRQDQGHPSKDVL]HVDQDO\VLV´ [33 p26]. It involves the iterative gathering and analysis of data using successive rounds of coding (initial, focused, and theoretical) and comparative methods which lead to the construction of conceptual categories, the iden- tification of the relationships between them, and the construction of a theory grounded in the data, and hence a grounded theory. The author used Atlas.ti, a Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software, in conjunction with manual methods, to identify and code articulations of the benefits of Linked Data within the source literature (see Table 1 for example LQVWDQFHVRIWKHLQLWLDOFRGHµIDFLOLWDWLQJDUFKLYDODQDO\VLVUHVHDUFK QRWSRVVLEOHPDQXDOO\¶ZKLFKZDVVXEVHTXHQWO\DVVLJQHGDVDSURSHUW\RIWKHIRFXVHG code Facilitating New Methods of Engagement and Analysis). Through an iterative pro- cess of successive rounds of comparing, categorizing and refining the codes and seek- ing further data to extend the findings, the author identified fifteen benefits of Linked Data for archives (focused codes) and their properties (initial codes). These were further analysed to form three areas of benefit (conceptual categories) - empowering users, enhancing data, and future-proofing the archives sector - with the former being the fo- cus of this paper. The results of this analysis were triangulated using a virtual focus group conducted with UK banking and financial services archivists in early 2021. 4 Table 1. Example instances of the benefit Facilitating New Methods of Engagement and Analy- sis Benefit Property Quote Facilitating facilitating µ5HODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ LQGLYLGXDOV DQG LQVWLWXWLRQV New Meth- archival social and professional, can be [sic] also be analyzed, ods of En- analysis/re- GRFXPHQWHG DQG H[SORUHG«UHYHDOLQJ IRU WKH ILUVW gagement search not time both the social and intellectual networks that in- and Analysis possible formed practice in post-war Queensland, and the manually GHSWKDQGFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHVH¶>S@ µ/LQNHG 'DWD FDQ DOVR EH XVHG LQ FRPELQDWLRQ ZLWK data mining and information visualization techniques to facilitate analysis of archival information dispersed across many collections and institutions; such tech- niques will help researchers expand the breadth and depth of archival analysis beyond what is possible ZLWKPDQXDOPHWKRGV«¶>S@ µ/LQNLQJKLVWRULFDOGRFXPHQWVDQGUHFRUGVWRSODFHDO lows synthesized, seamless access across heterogene- ous archival data sets and facilitates novel ways of be- ing able to search and browse large-scale archival col- OHFWLRQV¶>S@ 4 Results It is clear that ALD meets the needs of a wide range of users and in multiple ways, with 1LXIRUH[DPSOHFODLPLQJLW³ZLOOJUHDWO\LPSURYHWKHFDSDELOLW\RIDUFKLYHVLQVDWLV I\LQJUHVHDUFKHUV¶QHHGV´ [19 p95] There is considerable evidence that LD meets the needs of professional researchers, including historians, arts and humanities researchers, and digital humanities scholars, as it ³SURYLGHVWKHW\SHRIIOH[LELOLW\WKDWUHVearchers require to quickly incorporate new information and data structures that are necessary as their research progresses.´>34 p254] Other findings have suggested that LD meets the needs of Indigenous communities, for example by facilitating archive services¶ work with and in support of Indigenous communities, enabling WKRVH FRPPXQLWLHV¶ ownership, control, access, and possession of records with a shared provenance or which have been created about, rather than with or by, such communities, and facilitat- ing the creation of interfaces which can be tailored to the needs of the community by optimising resource-discovery and rights-management [22, 35]. As well as categories of users, needs are also met on an individual level, for example by using user profiles to contextualise and customise search results for the individual [36]. The following four sections give a structured overview of four identified ways in which users benefit from ALD. 5 4.1 Facilitating New Methods of Engagement and Analysis Succinctly articulating a claim for ALD made on multiple occasions across the litera- ture, in their introduction to Records in Contexts Daniel Pitti et al. argued that semantic WHFKQRORJ\DQG/'³DOORZWKHXVHRIDUFKLYDOGDWDLQZD\VWKDWDIHZ\HDUVDJRwere unimaginable or prohibitively difficult to do for both social and technological reasons.´ [37 p176] A significant benefit of publishing archival data as LD is that it is machine readable; it is thus able to support semantic data automatic reasoning and analysis, per- form analysis across disparate and dispersed corpora of data, query large volumes of data, and offer new methods for discovering, engaging with, interpreting and using ar- chival data. Such methods facilitate types of research which are not possible manually and which previous digital methods have not enabled [14, 18, 26, 37-38]: they allow users to construct more complex queries in ways not previously possible [28], enable the detection of previously unidentified relationships within and across datasets and collections, regardless of record format [25-27, 39], and allow for deeper analysis of archival sources [39]. Adopting LD creates a digital research environment, opening up archival data to natively digital methods, and supporting dynamic research methods. There are further benefits in combining LD with other digital technologies in order to expand the depth and breadth of possible archival analysis, including the incorporation of graphical interfaces, data or text mining, data visualization, optical character recog- nition (OCR), network analysis, natural language processing (NLP), and named entity recognition (NER). 4.2 Improving User Experience by Linking to Other Data Sources /'¶VPDFKLQHUHDGDELOLW\DQGLWVDELOLW\WRFRQQHFWGLVSDUDWHGDWDVHWVDQGUHYHDOUHOD tionships across datasets improves the user experience by creating links to other sources of data. ALD enables users to navigate seamlessly across datasets, to reuse, align and enrich archival data, and to integrate it with data derived from other sources. Indeed, referring to the work of the Linking Lives project, Jane Stevenson claimed that users are benefited E\/'³FRQQHFW>LQJ@DUFKLYHVPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\WRWKHZLGHULQIRUPDWLRQ landscape, bringing them together with other sources´>9 p14] In addition to the ben- efits engendered by the general improvement in the quality of the research experience there are also improvements in the process of information discovery. By creating links to other data sources, the results of information discovery are richer and more mean- ingful, the data surfaced is higher quality and more comprehensive, and new avenues are provided for further exploration. For example, archival data is better contextualised by it not being presented in isolation from data from other sources [18, 22, 29, 40]; such contextualisation enables users to have a better understanding of the data and the ar- chival objects they document. Furthermore, users benefit from the increased range of information revealed to them, which might include further descriptive, contextual and authority data (either internal administrative data previously not made publicly availa- ble, or drawn from external sources) [18, 37, 40], and newly identified connections be- tween collections and datasets [15, 18, 37-38, 40-42]. 6 4.3 Improving the Search Process Much of the literature documents improvements in the information search and retrieval process as a result of adopting LD technologies. Niu claimed that adoption of LD could ³IXQGDPHQWDOO\FKDQJHWKH QDWXUHRILQIRUPDWLRQGLVFRYHU\LQ/$0V´> p84], and there is widespread consensus that LD adoption increases the capabilities of the search process, and improves its effectiveness, efficiency and precision [21, 23, 43-44]. The search process is improved in a number of ways, including through improved content querying, the ability to deliver richer, more meaningful, sophisticated and relevant search results, which can be browsed at finer levels of granularity, and through retriev- ing information otherwise overlooked through common techniques such as keyword searching. More complex queries can be accommodated by the SPARQL query lan- guage. With a single query, searches can be made across multiple collections, and nav- igation across archival and non-archival sources of data is made possible [42, 44]. New pathways into archival data are created, users can access and navigate archival data not only in linear ways, but also serendipitously. As a result, the search time and associated costs are reduced [21]. Furthermore, LD pushes archival data closer to the individual user, allowing them to access data for their specific purposes more efficiently. It accommodates multiple search methods, thus meeting the needs of different users. These methods include SPARQL endpoints, LD web services and user interfaces which support entity, seman- tic concept, or keyword search, browsing, and serendipitous search. Such LD user in- terfaces can enable more complex filtering of search results and faceted results [45-47], graphical representations and visualizations of data, such as statistical and map-based visualizations [26, 41, 47], and auto-filling suggested search terms [23, 26]. LD can also be embedded into catalogue data, thus making ALD also accessible via original search interfaces and online catalogues [19]. 4.4 Increasing Access to and Ease of Use of Archival Data There is considerable evidence that adopting LD increases access to, and usage of, ar- chival data, providing a powerful argument for archives services to engage with LD as DPHDQVRIDFKLHYLQJWKHJRDORIµRSHQLQJXS¶WKHDUFKLYHV. The Open Metadata Path- way project was not alone in its claim that one of the ways in which the project had underlined the value of ALD was through increasing access and discovery [16]. Evi- dence of high levels of access can be seen from the examples of the Finnish projects BiographySampo, which had 43,000 distinct users during its first five months, and War- Sampo, which reported 690,000 distinct users between 2015 and 2020 [24, 45]. ALD extends the reach of archival catalogues and data, making data more widely available and thus able to reach new and larger audiences. Furthermore, it has been suggested that it enables archives to reach users who would not typically otherwise engage with archives and archival data [44, 48], a further priority of the archives profession. LD provides new entryways into archival data and increases access by making data share- able, extensible, and reusable, and increasing the openness, visibility, and discoverabil- ity of archival data. 7 Self-evidently, any initiative which makes archival data easier to access and use is of great benefit to users. Indeed, increasing the ease of use of archival data is a common motivating factor of ALD activity. Given that any archival data is made easier to use by its increased availability, visibility and discoverability, the process of converting archival data and publishing it as ALD enriches it, as well as creating unprecedented opportunities for its discovery, interpretation, and use [27, 39, 43], including facilitating multilingual access [49-50]. The possibility of linking between data increases accessi- bility, making it easier to access related information. Users are able to access data more easily for their specific purposes without requiring specific technical knowledge of ar- chival jargon, cataloguing standards or LD in order to efficiently access information [8, 19, 50]. 5 Discussion Examination of ALD scholarship and practice-based case studies has provided substan- tial evidence of the benefits of ALD for users, benefits which can be used as a powerful tool to advocate for investment in ALD. However, many of the studies cited in Sections 2 and 4 also highlight that it is not enough just to make ALD available; for users to fully benefit from the potential provided by ALD, it needs to be accessible in multiple ways and serve multiple research purposes and methods. The creation of accessible LD web services, user interfaces and analytical tools is essential to enable users with a range of experience and research interests to access, interrogate and manipulate ALD without the need to develop expertise in LD or to master SPARQL (SPARQL Protocol And Query Language), the difficulties of which are well documented in ALD scholarship [19, 44]. Already, µtraditional¶ descriptive cataloguing no longer meets the needs of some user groups [51], a situation likely to become rapidly more commonplace; at the same time the actual needs of users in the ALD environment are little understood and ALD surveys have primarily focused on implementers. The principal source of user needs in the UK is the UK and Ireland Archives and 5HFRUGV $VVRFLDWLRQ¶V EL-annual Survey of Visitors to Archives, most recently con- ducted in 2018 [51]. Respondents to the survey are in person visitors to participating archives services over the age of seventeen; there is no equivalent survey for online users. This report reveals an increase in visitors aged 17-44, and that there are consist- ently low levels of satisfaction with both the usability and quality of online catalogues, and with the quality and provision of access to other online sources. The report also acknowledges that the demands of users are becoming more sophisticated. LD offers a viable means of meeting the increasingly sophisticated needs of digitally native users. Through the ability to create multiple applications and search interfaces over a single ALD dataset, LD enables archives services to provide access to archival data in a man- ner tailored to meet the needs of specific, or multiple, types of user, and also empowers users to create their own tools and interfaces. Furthermore, as user needs continue to evolve in conjunction with technological advances, LD also enables the needs of future users to be met [25], users who, *UDF\VXJJHVWV³ZLOOZDQWWRQRWMust discover new information, but understand the connections among the various entities associated with ZKDWLVEHLQJGHVFULEHG´ [40 p359]. 8 Collaboration is crucial to making archival data available, discoverable, and acces- sible as LD, and has clearly become commonplace in ALD activity [12]. However, users are rarely involved in such collaborations, and those who are tend to be academic researchers. A challenge of collaborating with other types of users is likely to be that general awareness of LD remains low, and user-friendly tools for the generation and use of LD are in their infancy. However, there is one group of users with whom it would be especially beneficial for archives and other GLM institutions to collaborate, digital humanities scholars. The Digital Humanities utilizes computational methods to inter- rogate large digital datasets in order to address an ever-expanding range of humanities questions. Digital humanities scholarship sits at the intersection of computational tech- nologies and humanities scholarship [53], and has changed humanities research by be- coming more interdisciplinary and collaborative [54-55]. LD is becoming increasingly important in digital humanities scholarship as a means of creating, publishing, and an- alyzing GLAM data [37]. Significantly, digital humanities LD studies using archival data clearly demonstrate that investment in LD tools and services for the purposes of digital humanities research benefits users in general [24, 28, 34, 56-58]. As an inherently interdisciplinary and collaborative field with experience of a range of digital methods that is information and data-driven, requires access to large-scale digital datasets, and has a demonstrable interest in, and impetus for, making archival data more digitally accessible, there is a natural synergy between digital humanities scholars and the archives sector which could be built upon in order to progress towards widespread adoption of ALD, and in so doing, ensure that archives services are better able to meet the needs of users. 6 Conclusions ³7KHFKDOOHQJHVRIGHVLJQLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWLQJVWDQGDUGVDQGV\V tems that will satisfy many different users remain difficult to resolve VDWLVIDFWRULO\IRUDOODUFKLYHVDQGXVHUVRIDUFKLYDOFROOHFWLRQV´> p278] There is overwhelming evidence that ALD benefits users in multiple ways. However, there is currently little understanding of the needs of users with specific regards to ALD, and users are not commonly involved in ALD activity. As a profession, we need to better understand the benefits of ALD, including those particularly advantageous to users. Such knowledge is essential in order to advocate for investment in the often re- source-intensive process of generating ALD and developing the web-services, user in- terfaces and tools necessary to make it accessible, usable, and capable of meeting the needs of the wide range of users and current non-users of archives. Furthermore, exten- sive user testing is crucial to improve the discovery and usability of ALD [59]. In ena- EOLQJDUFKLYHVWRµRSHQXS¶WKHLUFROOHFWLons, attract new audiences, and increase acces- sibility, ALD can progress the archives sector towards providing access to FAIR (Find- able, Accessible, Interoperable, Re-usable) digital data [60]. However, interdisciplinary collaboration is vital for the successful implementation of ALD. Collaboration with 9 digital humanities scholars provides many opportunities to further develop the infra- structure required for ALD and increase the production of ALD datasets, both of which will benefit users more widely, and move the archives sector closer towards realizing the full potential of LD for archives. References 1. ICA, Standards: Records in Contexts ± Ontology, https://www.ica.org/en/records-in-con- texts-ontology/, last accessed 2021/06/10. 2. Towards a National Collection Homepage, https://www.nationalcollection.org.uk/, last ac- cessed 2021/06/10. 3. OCLC, Research: Linked Data, https://www.oclc.org/research/areas/data-science/linked data.html, last accessed 2021/06/10. 4. Europeana Pro, Introduction, https://pro.europeana.eu/page/linked-open-data, last accessed 2021/06/10. 5. Ali, I., Warraich, N.: Linked Data Initiatives in Libraries and Information Centres: a sys- tematic review. Electronic Library 36(5), 925-937 (2018). DOI: 10.1108/EL-04-2018-0075 6. Hallo, M., Luján-Mora, S., Maté, A., Trujillo, J.: Current State of Linked Data in Digital Libraries. Journal of Information Science 42(2), 117-27 (2016). DOI: 10.1177/0165551515594729 7. Yoose, B., Perkins, J.: The Linked Open Data Landscape in Libraries and Beyond. Journal of Library Metadata 13(2-3), 197-211 (2013). DOI: 10.1080/19386389.2013.826075 8. Rasmussen Pennington, D., Cagnazzo, L.: Connecting the Silos: Implementations and per- ceptions of Linked Data across European Libraries. Journal of Documentation 75(3), 643- 666 (2019). DOI: 10.1108/JD-07-2018-0117 9. Raza, J., Mahmood, K., Warraich, N.: Application of Linked Data Technologies in Digital Libraries: A review of Literature. Library Hi Tech 36(3), 9-12 (2019). DOI: 10.1108/LHTN- 10-2018-0067 10. Smith-Yoshimura, K.: Analysis of International Linked Data Survey for Implementers. D- Lib Magazine 22(7-8), (2016). DOI: 10.1045/july2016-smith-yoshimura 11. Smith-Yoshimura, K.: Analysis of 2018 International Linked Data Survey for Implementers. Code4Lib Journal 42, 2018-2029 (2018). 12. Desmeules, R.E., Turp, C., Senior, A.: Exploring Methods of Linked Data Model Evaluation in Practice. Journal of Library Metadata 20(1), 65-89 (2020). DOI: 10.1080/19386389.2020.1742434 13. Berners-Lee, T., Design Issues: Linked Data, https://www.w3.org/DesignIs- sues/LinkedData.html, last accessed 2021/06/10. 14. Clough, P., Tang, J., Hall, M., Warner, A.: Linking Archival Data to Location: a case study at the UK National Archives. Aslib Proceedings: New Information Perspectives 63(2-3), 127-147 (2011). DOI: 10.1108/00012531111135628 15. Ruddock, B.: Linked Data and the LOCAH Project. Business Information Review 28(2), 105-111 (2011). DOI 10.1177/0266382111404013 16. AIM25 Step change and Open Metadata Pathway project blog, http://openmetadatapath- way.blogspot.com/, last accessed 2021/06/10. 17. Civil War Data 150 Homepage, https://www.civilwardata150.net/, last accessed 2021/06/10. 18. Gracy, K.F.: Archival Description and Linked Data: a preliminary study of opportunities and implementation challenges. Archival Science 15(3), 239-294 (2015). DOI: 10.1007/s10502-014-9216-2 10 19. Niu, J.: Linked Data for Archives. Archivaria 82, 83-110 (2016). DOI: https://archiva- ria.ca/index.php/archivaria/article/view/13582 20. de Boer, V., de Bryun, T., Brooks, J., de Vos, J.: The Benefits of Linking Metadata for Internal and External Users of an Audiovisual Archive. In: Garoufallou, E., Sartori, F., Siatri, R., Zervas, M. (eds.) Metadata and Semantic Research 2018, CCIS vol. 846, pp. 212- 223. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-14401-2_20 21. Robeldano-Arillo, J., Navarro-Bonilla, D., Cerdá-Díaz, J.: Application of Linked Open Data to the Coding and Dissemination of Spanish Civil War Photographic Archives. Journal of Documentation 76(1), 67-95 (2019). DOI: 10.1108/JD-06-2019-0112 22. Corn, A., Patrick, S.: Exploring the Applicability of the Semantic Web for Discovering and Navigating Australian Indigenous Knowledge Systems. Archives and Manuscripts 47(1), 131-142 (2019). DOI: 10.1080/01576895.2019.1575248 23. Rademaker, A. et al.: A Linked Open Data Architecture for the Historical Archives of the Getulio Vargas Foundation. International Journal on Digital Libraries 15(2-4), 153-167 (2015). DOI: 10.1007/s00799-015-0147-1 24. Hyvönen, E. et al.: WarSampo Data Service and Semantic Portal for Publishing Linked Open Data about the Second World War History. In: Sack, H. et al. (eds) European Semantic Web Conference 2016. LNCS vol. 9678, pp. 758-773 25. 'HEUX\QH & HW DO µ$ 6HPDQWLF $UFKLWHFWXUH IRU 3UHVHUYLQJ DQG ,QWHUSUHWLQJ WKH ,QIRU mation Contained in Irish Historical Vital Records. International Journal on Digital Libraries 17(3), 159-174 (2016). DOI: 10.1007/s00799-016-0180-8 26. Hunter, J. et al.: A Web 3.0 Approach to Building an Online Digital Archive of Architectural Practice in Post-war Queensland. Comma 2012(2), 39-54 (2012). DOI: 10.3828/comma.2012.2.5 27. Pattuelli, M.C. et al.: Crafting Linked Open Data for Cultural Heritage: Mapping and Cura- tion Tools for the Linked Jazz Project. Code4Lib Journal 21, 1-7 (2013). 28. Koho, M. et al.: WarSampo Knowledge Graph: Finland in the Second World War as Linked Open Data. Semantic Web 12(2), 265-278 (2021). DOI: 10.3233/SW-200392 29. Stevenson, J.: Linking Lives: Creating an End-User Interface Using Linked Data. Infor- mation Standards Quarterly 12(2-3), 14-23 (2012). 30. Bones, H.: Linked Digital Archives and the Historical Publishing World: An Australasian Perspective. History Compass 17(3). DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12522 31. Daquino, M. et al.: Enhancing Semantic Expressivity in the Cultural Heritage Domain: ex- posing the Zeri Photo Archive as Linked Open Data. Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage 10(4), 2017. DOI: 10.1145/3051487 32. Candela, G., Escobar, P., Carrasco, R., Marco-Such, M.: A Linked Open Data Framework to Enhance the Discoverability and Impact of Cultural Heritage. Journal of Information Sci- ence 45(6), 756-766 (2019). DOI: 10.1177/0165551518812658 33. Charmaz, K.: Constructing Grounded Theory. 2nd edn. Sage Publications Ltd, London (2014). 34. Oldman, D., Doerr, M., Gradmann, S.: Zen and the Art of Linked Data: New Strategies for a Semantic Web of Humanists Knowledge. In: Schreibman S., Siemens R., Unsworth J. (eds.) A New Companion to Digital Humanities, pp. 251-273. Wiley Blackwell, New Jersey (2016) 35. Douglas, J. et al.: Decolonizing Archival Description: Can Linked Data Help? In: Luanne F. (ed.) Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology Annual Meet- ing 55(1), pp. 669-672. John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey (2018). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.2018.14505501077 11 36. Bikakis, A. et al.: Editorial: Special issue on Semantic Web Cultural Heritage. Semantic Web 12(2), 163-167 (2021). DOI: 10.3233/SW-210425 37. Pitti, D., Stockting, B., Clavaud, F.: $Q,QWURGXFWLRQWRµ5HFRUGVLQ&RQWH[WV¶DQDUFKLYDO description draft standard. Comma 2016(1-2), 173-188 (2016). DOI: 10.3828/comma.2016.18 38. Gartner, R.: An XML Schema for Enhancing the Semantic Interoperability of Archival De- scription. Archival Science 15, 295-313 (2015). DOI: 10.1007/s10502-014-9225-1 39. Pattuelli, M.C., Hwang, K., Miller, M.: Accidental Discovery, Intentional Inquiry: Leverag- ing Linked Data to Uncover the Women of Jazz. Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 32(4), 918-924 (2017). DOI: 10.1093/llc/fqw047 40. Gracy, K.F.,: Enriching and Enhancing Moving Images with Linked Data: An exploration in the alignment of metadata models. Journal of Documentation 74(2), 354-371 (2018). DOI: 10.1108/JD-07-2017-0106 41. Browell, G.: From Linked Open Data to Linked Open Knowledge. In Baker, D., Evans, W. (eds.) Digital Strategies: From Applications and Content to Libraries and People, pp. 87-99. Elsevier Ltd, London (2016). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100251-3.00006-8 42. Gracy, K., Zeng, M., Skirvin, L.: Exploring Methods to Improve Access to Music Resources by Aligning Library Data with Linked Data: A report of methodologies and preliminary findings. Journal fo the American Society for Information Science and Technology 64(10), 2078-2099 (2013). DOI: 10.1002/asi.22914 43. Llanes-Padrón, C., Pastor-Sánchez, J.A.: Records in Contexts: The road of archives to se- mantic interoperability. Program: electronic library and information systems 51(4), 387-405 (2017). 10.1108/PROG-03-2017-0021 44. 0F.HQQD/'HEUX\QH2¶6XOOLYDQ'8QGHUVWDQGLQJWKH3RVLWLRQRI,QIRUPDWLRQ3URIHV sionals with regards to Linked Data: A survey of Libraries, Archives and Museums. In: Pro- ceedings of the 18th ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, pp. 7-16. Association for Computing Machinery, New York (2018). DOI: 10.1145/3197026.3197041 45. Koho, M. et al.: Linked Death ± Representing, Publishing, and Using Second World War Death Records as Linked Open Data. In Blomqvist, E. et al. (eds) European Semantic Web Conference 2017, LCNS, vol 10577, Springer, Cham (2017). DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319- 70407-4_45 46. Laurence, C.M.: Linked Data and the Library of Congress. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal) 1114 (2013). 47. Miyakita, G., Leskinen, P., Hyvönen, E.: Using Linked Data for Prosopograhpical Research of Historical Persons: Case U.S. Congress Legislators. In Ionnides, M. et al. (eds) Digital Heritage. Progress in Cultural Heritage: Documentation, Preservation, and Protection, pp. 150-162. Springer, Cham (2018). 48. Park, O.N.: Development of Linked Data for Archives in Korea. D-Lib Magazine 21(3-4), 1-17 (2015). DOI: 10.1045/march2015-park 49. Binding, C., Tudhope, D., Vlachdis, A.: A Study of Semantic Integration across Archaelog- ical Data and Reports in Different Langauges. Journal of Information Science 45(3), 364- 386 (2019). 10.1177/0165551518789874 50. Marjit, U., Sharma, K., Sarkar, A., Krishnamurthy, M.: Publishing Legacy Data as Linked Data: A state of the art survey. Library Hi Tech 31(3), 520-535 (2013). DOI: 10.1108/LHT- 09-2012-0075 51. Krier, L.: Serials, FRBR, and Library Linked Data: A way forward. Journal of Library Metadata 12(2-3), 177-187 (2012). doi:10.1080/19386389.2012.699834 12 52. Archives and Records Association National Surveys Group: Survey of Visitors to UK Ar- chives 2018: National Report. CIPFA (2019). available at: https://www.archives.org.uk/im- ages/Public_Services_Quality_Grp/Survey_of_Visitors_to_UK_Archives_2018_- _National_Headline_Report_.pdf 53. Schriebman, S., Siemens, R., Unsworth: The Digital Humanities and Humanities Compu- ting. In: Schriebman, S., Siemens, R., Unsworth, J. (eds.) A Companion to Digital Human- ities, pp xxiii-xvi. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford (2004). 54. McCarty, W.: Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities. In: Deegan, M., McCarty, W. (eds) Collaborative Research in the Digital Humanities: A volume in honour of Harold Short on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday and His Retirement, pp. 1-10. Ashgate Publish- ing, Ltd., Farnham (2012). 55. Spiro, L.: Computing and Communicating Knowledge: Collaborative Approaches to Digital Humanities Projects. In: McGrath, L. (ed.) Collaborative Approaches to the Digital in Eng- lish Studies, pp. 44-82. Computers and Composition Digital Press/Utah State University Press, Logan (2011). 56. de Boer, V. et al.: DIVE into the Event-based Browsing of linked Historical Media. Journal of Web Semantics 35, 152-158 (2015). DOI: 10.1016/j.websem.2015.06.003 57. Hyvönen, E.: Linked Open Data Infrastructure for Digital Humanities. In: Reinsone, S. et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Digital Humanities in the Nordic Countries 5th Conference, CEUR-WS, vol. 2612, pp. 254-259. CEUR, Aachen (2020). 58. Hyvönen, E.: Using the Semantic Web in Digital Humanities: Shift from data-publishing to data-analysis and serendipitous discovery. Semantic Web 11(1), 187-193 (2020). DOI: 10.3233/SW-190386 59. Jaillant, L.: After the Digital Revolution: Working with emails and born-digital records in OLWHUDU\ SXEOLVKHUV¶ DUFKLYHV $UFKLYHV DQG 0DQXVFULSWV    -304 (2019). DOI: 10.1080/01576895.2019.1640555 60. Wilkinson, MD. et al.: The FAIR Guiding Principles for scientific data management and stewardship. Scientific Data 3 (160018). DOI: 10.1038/sdata.2016.18