=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3033/paper15
|storemode=property
|title="La ministro è incinta": A Twitter Account of Women’s Job Titles in Italian
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3033/paper15.pdf
|volume=Vol-3033
|authors=Alessandra Teresa Cignarella,Mirko Lai,Andrea Marra,Manuela Sanguinetti
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/clic-it/CignarellaLMS21
}}
=="La ministro è incinta": A Twitter Account of Women’s Job Titles in Italian==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3033/paper15.pdf
“La ministro è incinta”: A Twitter Account of Women’s Job Titles in Italian
Alessandra Teresa Cignarella1,2 , Mirko Lai1 , Andrea Marra and Manuela Sanguinetti3
1. Università degli Studi di Torino, Italy
2. Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain
3. Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Italy
{alessandrateresa.cignarella|mirko.lai}@unito.it,
andrea.marra.linguistica@gmail.com, manuela.sanguinetti@unica.it
Abstract more gender-inclusive language.12
The presence of gender biases and stereotypes
We analyze the use of feminine forms has drawn much attention even in the Natural Lan-
indicating professions and roles held by guage Processing community.3 Research in this
women in Italian. The study is based on field mainly focuses on the study of a model’s per-
Twitter and collects data from 2006 to formance on data associated with a certain gender,
2021. This allows us to set up both the or rather on the association between gender and cer-
quantitative and the qualitative study in tain concepts as found in language models (Sun et
a diachronic perspective on a time span al., 2019).
of 15 years. We observe the distribution The present work, instead, aims at giving an
over time of a selection of feminine job exploratory account of the linguistic visibility of
titles (i.e., minister, mayor, rector, engi- women in Italian language, with a focus in partic-
neer and lawyer), compared to their mas- ular on job titles. For this purpose, we analyze the
culine counterparts, distinguishing in par- use of feminine forms used for job titles and pro-
ticular the following cases: use of marked fessional roles in Twitter.
forms and use of semi-marked forms. The Studies on corpus-based discourse analysis have
analysis shows that the trend of using femi- already focused on gender issues with respect to job
nine (i.e. marked) forms is generally grow- titles in Italian. They either quantitatively evaluate
ing through time. However, the unbalance the mostly used gendered forms in texts when refer-
between the actual number of women em- ring to female referents (Formato, 2016; Formato,
ployed in some professions and the use of 2019a; Voghera and Vena, 2016), or rather assess,
the correspondent feminine job title is wide. by means of a survey among native speakers, the
degree of acceptability of some feminine job titles
(Castenetto and Ondelli, 2020).
1 Introduction
From a theoretical point of view, such works re-
The studies on how sexes are represented in lan- volve (overtly or more indirectly) around the notion
guage pertain to a transdisciplinary field of re- of markedness in language, that can be intended
search where linguistic aspects intersect with psy- here as the “contrast between the unmarked (gen-
chological and social issues (Stahlberg et al., 2007). eral, usual, non-salient) and the marked (special,
The various types of gender representations in lan- emphatic)” (Clyne et al. (2009) cited in Formato
guage, along with their asymmetries, is a matter (2019b, p.50)).4 In the present context, the “gen-
widely studied in linguistics (Hellinger and Buß-
1
mann, 2001) as well as in social psychology (Hor- Elsewhere also defined as gender-fair, gender-neutral or
non-sexist language (Sczesny et al., 2016).
vath et al., 2016; Hodel et al., 2017). Some of 2
https://www.valigiablu.it/linguaggio-i
these studies have also affected Italian (Lepschy nclusivo-dibattito/.
3
et al., 2001; Marcato and Thüne, 2002; Mucchi- See, for example, the Workshop Series on Gender Bias in
NLP: https://genderbiasnlp.talp.cat/.
Faina, 2005; Maturi, 2020), where a renewed de- 4
In its most general sense, this term refers to an opposi-
bate has spread in the recent past on the use of a tion between two - otherwise equal - linguistic elements, one
of which is characterized by the presence of a mark and the
Copyright © 2021 for this paper by its authors. Use per- other by its absence (e.g. voicing in voiced vs voiceless stops).
mitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 Inter- However, the notion underwent a number of different interpre-
national (CC BY 4.0). tations and applications. For an in-depth analysis of the differ-
eral, usual, non-salient” case is represented by mas- such as the adjective or the article) according to two
culine forms when used to express a generic ref- values: masculine and feminine. The gender value
erence. This means that grammatical masculine is assigned according to phonological and seman-
nouns are perceived and used as unmarked terms tic criteria (Thornton, 2005). In assigning gender to
(for both men and women) based on the idea that nouns denoting human referents, there is a strong
they represent how the world is, opposing marked tendency to semantically match grammatical gen-
feminine terms which are seen as new, ungrammat- der with the sex of the referent (e.g., la maestra è
ical and ‘sounding bad’. arrivata vs. il maestro è arrivato - ‘the teacher ar-
While sharing with the studies mentioned above rived’).
the same theoretical premise, the present work ad- Typically, the masculine is ‘overextended’ in ref-
dresses the issue of women visibility in Italian lan- erence to mixed groups (e.g. tutti i candidati
guage relying on user-generated data retrieved from ammessi - ‘allMASC admittedMASC candidates’MASC )
Twitter: its peculiar nature as language data source, or abstract functions (e.g. le elezioni a sindaco
along with the opportunity it offers to extract and - ‘the mayoralMASC elections’), as well as in the
filter data based on specific keywords and time case of individuals whose gender is not (yet) known
spans, makes this platform particularly useful for (e.g. assumeremo un nuovo impiegato - ‘we’ll hire
our purposes. a new employee’MASC ). However, there are cases in
More precisely, we aimed at studying the dis- which, despite the existence of the feminine form,
tribution over time of a selection of feminine job the masculine is also preferred to refer to a woman,
titles, distinguishing in particular the following especially when the person holds a prestigious po-
cases: sition (Voghera and Vena, 2016). In such a case,
the assignment of grammatical gender does not fol-
• the use of marked forms, i.e. feminine forms low this semantic criterion: unmarked expressions
referring to female professionals (e.g. la sin- referring to a woman (Thornton, 2009, p.126) or
daca Raggi (‘mayorFEM Raggi’)); semi-marked expressions 6 are well attested. If we
• (for a restricted set of examples) the use of consider gender not only as a morphological cate-
semi-marked forms (Formato, 2016), i.e. the gory, but also as a semantic category, we can un-
combination of masculine forms and feminine derstand that, in the symbolic horizon within which
modifiers when referring to female profession- the preceding examples move, masculine gender is
als (e.g. la neo-ministro è incinta (‘theFEM taken as a neutral (or unmarked) form.
newMASC ministerMASC is pregnant’)). The assumed neutrality of masculine forms has
already been questioned from several points of view
We thus provide some background knowledge on (Cavagnoli, 2013; Thornton, 2016; Voghera and
the main linguistic conventions of Italian language Vena, 2016). The seminal work by Alma Saba-
in the assignment of grammatical gender, also men- tini (1987), and the one proposed, more than two
tioning some of the well-known studies that have decades later, by Cecilia Robustelli (2012), have
challenged such conventions over the years, to- clarified the existence and use of feminine forms
wards a more inclusive use of feminine forms, es- already provided for by the Italian linguistic sys-
pecially for professions. We then describe how data tem, and allowed the formulation of recommenda-
has been collected and filtered, and show the distri- tions and guidelines for a more inclusive gendered
bution of the selected job titles in both forms and language.
across a 15-year time span. While such reform proposals went largely un-
heeded (Merkel et al., 2012), more recent studies
2 Background seem to reveal a slight change in linguistic habits
Italian is a grammatical gender language5 and pro- among Italian native speakers (Castenetto and On-
vides for the mandatory classification of the noun delli, 2020). Hence the choice to verify, by means
and its respective targets in agreement (modifiers, of an analysis of user-generated content retrieved
from Twitter, if a paradigm shift can be found with
ent perspectives with which this concept is treated, we refer to
Moravcsik and Wirth (1986) and Haspelmath (2006). respect to the use of more gender-inclusive forms.
5
We refer to Stahlberg et al (2007) for the complete def-
6
inition of grammatical gender, natural gender and genderless https://www.repubblica.it/online/speci
languages. ale/presti/presti/presti.html.
3 Data Collection the surname of a famous Italian singer and song-
writer (Donatella Rettore), and of the word avvo-
Starting from the proposals presented in the rec-
cata (‘lawyer’FEM ) with a homonymous district of
ommendations of Sabatini (1987) and Robustelli
the city of Naples, Italy.
(2012), we selected a shortlist of 11 job titles with
Other keywords are also affected by the use of
both masculine and feminine endings. The selec-
figurative language. Particularly relevant is the use
tion is based on morphological criteria, more pre-
of the keywords ministro and avvocata in a reli-
cisely on the different categories of gender suffix
gious context. Indeed, in Christianity, priests are
pairs that can be added to the root of a noun. We
also called ministri di Dio (‘ministers of the Lord’),
thus included the following terms:
while avvocata nostra (‘most gracious advocate’)
Job titles ending in -oMASC / -aFEM : is part of the prayer ‘Hail Holy Queen’. These few
examples help to catch a glimpse of the difficult
• ministro/ministra (‘minister’), task of cleaning and removing noisy tweets from
• sindaco/sindaca (‘mayor’). this dataset automatically. Therefore, we performed
a semi-automatic data cleaning by using filters tai-
Job titles ending in -toreMASC / -triceFEM : lored for each word.
The final dataset consists of around 9.7 million
• rettore/rettrice (‘rector’). tweets overall; Table 1 reports the number of tweets
per keyword, as resulted after the cleaning process.9
Job titles ending in -ereMASC / -eraFEM :
Drawing inspiration from studies in demography,
• ingegnere/ingegnera (‘engineer’). where male to female ratio is a common parame-
ter, we report the proportion of masculine (M) and
Job titles ending in -oMASC / -a or -essaFEM 7 feminine (F) forms in terms of M / F RATIO, where
the higher the value the greater the unbalance be-
• avvocato/avvocata/avvocatessa (‘lawyer’). tween the two forms at the expense of the latter.
Twitter recently introduced APIs (v2) that allow to MASC # tweets FEM # tweets M / F RATIO
access the full history of public conversations since ministro: 3,575,613 ministra: 290,321 12.32
the first tweet was created on March 21st, 2006.
sindaco: 4,005,156 sindaca: 256,334 15.62
Accordingly, we take advantage of Twitter’s full-
rettore: 138,328 rettrice: 4,490 30.81
archive search endpoint8 for retrieving each tweet
ingegnere: 291,334 ingegnera: 4,759 61.22
written in Italian and containing at least one of
avvocata: 22,771 49.78
the words listed above, from March 21st, 2006 to avvocato: 1,133,456
avvocatessa: 25,190 45.00
March 21st, 2021 aiming at depicting the scenario
sum: 9,143,887 sum: 405,841
of their use diachronically through a span of 15 unique: 9,090,414 unique: 378,274
years.
Table 1: N° of tweets retrieved for each query word.
3.1 Data Cleaning
A preliminary data analysis shows several noisy On the numerical front we can see that the number
tweets in the dataset. Some keywords are indeed of tweets containing the masculine form is greatly
particularly affected by homonymy and polysemy. dominant. This is especially evident in the case of
For example, the keywords sindaco and sindaca are the keyword pair ingegnere/ingegnera (M / F RATIO
also inflections of the verb sindacare (‘to judge, of 61.22) despite the fact that the ratio of male and
criticize, inspect’). A particular example is also the female engineers in Italy is 5.38.10
homonymy of the word rettore (‘rector’MASC ) with On the other hand, the feminine words that seem
7 to be used in the most balanced way with respect to
The suffix -essa is used as a derivative for female referents
starting from the male noun (Formato, 2019a), and its possible their masculine counterpart are ministra (M / F RA -
demeaning connotation has been matter of debate (Merkel et
9
al., 2012; Mucchi-Faina, 2005). In Sabatini’s Recommenda- It is worth pointing out, however, that several tweets con-
tions, its use is discouraged in favor of the suffix -a (or -e for tain two or more keywords; they are counted in the table as
some epicene nouns). many times as the number of keywords they contain. For this
8 reason the values of ‘sum’ are higher than ‘unique’.
https://developer.twitter.com/en/docs/
10
twitter-api/tweets/search/api-reference/ See page 13: https://www.cni.it/images/Ne
get-tweets-search-all. ws/2020/Iscritti anno 2020 LQ.pdf.
Figure 1: Frequency trend of women’s job titles from 2006 to 2021.
TIO of 12.32) and sindaca ( M / F RATIO of 15.62). which governmental changes occurred in Italy. In
particular, in both those time spans there have been
4 Data Analysis and Discussion female ministers who have been highly politically
exposed.11
The first step of our data analysis consists of ob-
Another fact worth mentioning is the trend of the
serving the trends of the frequency of use of the six
women’s job titles explored in this work.
p
mustard-yellow line in Figure 1 depicting the use
of the word sindaca (‘mayor’FEM ). The word seems
In Figure 1 we represent the frequency of femi-
to have started to be used more frequently in con-
nine job titles with respect to the total of terms used
junction with the election of two female mayors in
to describe the profession (FEM / FEM + MASC).
two large Italian cities.12 Also the relationship be-
We observe that from 2006 to 2021 there is a ten-
dency to a more frequent use of female forms in
tween red u and blue r lines in the same figure
presents a notable trend. Those lines respectively
general. However, relevant spikes are present on
show the use of avvocata and avvocatessa (both:
the left side of the chart. We believe they are caused
‘lawyer’FEM ). It is peculiar how the two lines show
by the scarcity of data before 2010, which is also
the same tendency throughout the years with the
imputable to the low popularity of the microblog-
preference for the term avvocatessa on top of avvo-
ging platform in Italy before that year. Further-
cata, until the year 2017. From that moment on,
more, among the 6 sixfeminine keywords used as
there is an inversion of trend and the occurrence of
case study in the present work, 2 of them do not
first term starts decreasing (blue r line), favoring
even have any occurrence in the totality of the year
2006. Their use starts with a few occurrences only
the use of the second one (red u line). The os-
cillation between avvocatessa and avvocata there-
from the year after (avvocatessa and rettrice).
q
The purple line (see Figure 1), illustrating the
fore remains, but it seems that the latter has been
increasingly gaining some ground.
trend of the word ministra (‘minister’FEM ) shows
The word rettrice (‘rector’FEM ), marked by the
how the word has been increasingly used around
2016-2017, and then again around 2019-2020. The
orange s line in Figure 1, has an averagely grow-
use of this term seem to increase during the elec- 11
Marianna Madia and Maria Elena Boschi in 2016-2017
tion period and to decrease immediately afterwards. and Luciana Lamorgese and Lucia Azzolina in 2019-2020.
12
This outcome is indeed in line with the periods in Virginia Raggi in Rome and Chiara Appendino in Turin.
Figure 2: Ratio between the marked forms and the semi-marked forms for the terms ministra/o (‘minister’,
on the left) and avvocata/o (‘mayor’, on the right).
ing distribution through time (around 2%), with a ing the ratio between the selected marked forms and
spike of increase in 2020, when – for the first time the sum of such forms with semi-marked forms.
– a woman has been elected as rector in the biggest In both cases it is once again evident that the data
university of Europe: La Sapienza in Rome. collected before 2010 is very scarce, and that rele-
Finally, ingegnera (‘engineer’FEM ) is the only one vant statistics are, therefore, to be considered valid
among the six terms taken into consideration with a only after that year.
low, though constant, trend throughout the tempo- For both charts it is shown how the tendency
ral span of 15 years (around 1.6%), with only one
t
of using marked forms (la ministra and la sin-
recent spike around 2020-2021 (green line). daca) is growing throughout the years; on the
other hand, expressions where the female attribute
4.1 Analysis of N-grams
is explicitly mentioned – such as signora minis-
In a second step of our analysis, we aimed at inves- tra (‘Madame minister’FEM ) and signora sindaca
tigating on the use of semi-marked forms (see Sec- (‘Madame mayor’FEM ) – are still very frequent (red
tion 1). We focused on the two terms that presented t lines in both charts).
the most balanced distributions with respect to their Despite the outcomes derived from the analy-
masculine counterpart (see Table 1), i.e. ministra sis of n-grams, we acknowledge that the procedure
and sindaca, and studied when and how the mascu- described in this subsection is fairly limited. Be-
line form has been used to refer to a female referent side the fact we studied the distribution of only two
in the real world. To do so, we extracted n-grams words out of the six selected for the present study,
where one of the two tokens is one of the masculine the availability of the same data enriched with part-
words selected for the study and the second token of-speech tagging and parsing information would
is a feminine determiner or nominal modifier. be highly beneficial for the automatic identification
Hence, we selected the following 2-grams of in- of marked and semi-marked forms.
terest:
5 Conclusion and Future Work
• la ministro/sindaco
(‘theFEM minister/mayor’MASC ) In this paper, we reported the results of a corpus-
based account of the linguistic visibility of women
• ministro/sindaco donna and donna min-
in Italian language, with a focus in particular on
istro/sindaco
job titles, and using Twitter as data source. From
(‘female minister/mayor’MASC )
a preliminary analysis of a selection of profession
• signora ministro/sindaco nouns, we found that some marked forms are in-
(‘Madame minister/mayor’MASC ) creasingly being preferred in spite of semi-marked
expressions. Besides extending and systematizing
In Figure 2 we show two charts (one for the word this analysis to other case studies, we also aim to
‘minister’, and one for the word ‘mayor’) illustrat- observe the usage of such forms by Italian native
speakers by tackling the issue as a stance detec- editors, Language, Gender and Hate Speech. A Mul-
tion task, so to assess how the users value a given tidisciplinary Approach, pages 75–90. Edizioni Ca’
Foscari.
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more, the messages leveraged on this topic might gua di genere: una simbiosi possibile. Edizioni
overlap with the task of misogyny detection and dell’Orso.
hate speech detection as well, broadening the hori- Alessandra Teresa Cignarella, Mirko Lai, Cristina
zons of three different NLP detection tasks. This Bosco, Viviana Patti, Rosso Paolo, et al. 2020.
design choice can also be motivated with regard to SardiStance@EVALITA2020: Overview of the Task
on Stance Detection in Italian Tweets. In EVALITA
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AlDayel and Magdy, 2021), to investigate how sup- guage Processing and Speech Tools for Italian.
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Acknowledgments
Lea Hodel, Magdalena Formanowicz, Sabine Sczesny,
Jana Valdrová, and Lisa von Stockhausen. 2017.
The work of A. T. Cignarella is supported by the
Gender-fair language in job advertisements: A cross-
European project ‘STERHEOTYPES’ funded by linguistic and cross-cultural analysis. Journal of
Compagnia di San Paolo and VolksWagen Stiftung Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48(3):384–401.
under the ‘Challenges for Europe’ call. The work
Lisa K. Horvath, Elisa F. Merkel, Anne Maass, and
of M. Sanguinetti is funded by PRIN 2017 (2019- Sabine Sczesny. 2016. Does gender-fair language
2022) project HOPE - High quality Open data Pub- pay off? The social perception of professions from a
lishing and Enrichment. cross-linguistic perspective. Frontiers in Psychology,
6.
Anna Laura Lepschy, Giulio Lepschy, and Helena San-
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