=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3094/paper_5
|storemode=property
|title=
Factors Affecting Data-Privacy Protection and Promotion of Safe Digital Usage
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3094/paper_5.pdf
|volume=Vol-3094
|authors=Rituparna Chakraborty,G S Prakash,C K Sripavithra
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==
Factors Affecting Data-Privacy Protection and Promotion of Safe Digital Usage
==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3094/paper_5.pdf
Factors Affecting Data-Privacy Protection and Promotion
of Safe Digital Usage
Rituparna Chakraborty 1, G S Prakasha 1 and C K Sripavithra 1, 2
1
Christ University, Central Campus, Bangalore, 560029, India
2
Maharani’s Science College for Women, Mysore, 570005, India
Abstract
India is facing the problem of the digital divide. Being developing countries and with low
literacy rates, digital knowledge among the public is weak. Those who know a bit about digital
operations on smartphones and computers are not having complete knowledge of data security
and its peculiarities. Therefore, this study aimed to find determinants of data-privacy anxiety
among Indians and to understand their stress and anxiety during the use of digital applications
in their daily routines, especially amid the COVID-19 scenario. The current study adopted an
inductive qualitative exploratory approach to delve into the above issues. This study employed
a reflexive thematic analysis method to analyse interview data of 10 participants across young-
adult to middle-adult age groups of male and female gender. Participants belonged to middle
socio-economic status having urban background. The study found 6 themes and 26 sub-
ordinate themes as determinants of data-privacy anxiety. Emerging themes from the data
indicated at the systemic determinants of data-security anxiety, the paradox of learned
helplessness and convenience preference among participants. This paper employed the
Foucauldian lens of bio-power to discuss the circumscribing function of ill-structured
knowledge dissemination approaches. This paper argues in favor of a critical pedagogy
approach in educating people about digital security, dealing with data-privacy anxiety, and
promoting safe digital usage among all generations of Indians. It also suggests measures of
modifications in policies and documentation processes of major online platforms and apps to
curb uncertainty and sense of insecurity among users.
Keywords 1
Anxiety, Data-security, Data breach, Online Apps
1. Introduction
India is a developing country with a 77.7 % literacy rate. 40% of the population live below the
poverty line. Digital literacy is almost non-existent in India. However, with the advancement in
technology across the globe people are forced to use digital platforms for their various purposes in daily
life. According to a 2016-17 survey, India is the second country in the world, after China, in the number
of internet users. India has 391 million people using the internet daily [1]. India has several digital
platforms for the public under the flagship programme called Digital India. Social awareness is an
important factor for internet transactions [2]. Recently smartphones became easily available to common
people all over India and private companies are providing internet services at cheaper prices. Therefore,
the public is using digital platforms without much knowledge of their usage and the conditions laid out
by app developers. Smartphone users have significant concerns over data breach [3]. Studies indicate
that activity patterns like not locking screens of smartphones are indicative of a lack of awareness about
AISMA-2021: International Workshop on Advanced in Information Security Management and Applications, October 1, 2021, Stavropol,
Krasnoyarsk, Russia
EMAIL: rituparna.chakraborty@christuniversity.in (Rituparna Chakraborty), prakasha.gs@christuniversity.in (G S Prakasha),
sripavithra.ck@res.christuniversity.in (C K Sripavithra).
ORCID: 0000-0001-6023-3728 (Rituparna Chakraborty), 0000-0002-1287-7606 (G S Prakasha), 0000-0003-4325-4564 (C K Sripavithra).
© 2022 Copyright for this paper by its authors.
Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)
49
possible risk and data-breach [4]. Consequently, there is a rampant breach of data security.[5] There is
a surplus amount of data stealing and misuse across India and many parts of the world.
India is a country with the highest youth population, housing almost 500 million people studying
and working. Many of them are the victims of cyberbullying. Cyber-bullying has been established as a
predictor of loneliness in the young population of multiple countries.[6] They use online apps for almost
every daily routine such as ordering food, clothing, entertainment, shopping, bill payments, etc.
Recently there is a rise in the number of cases of data theft and SMS alerts are being sent by various
authorities on non-disclosure of personal information. Owing to this, people have anxiety and stress on
data insecurity while every online transaction they do. Research studies have shown that significant
portions of consumers have privacy concerns related to online shopping [7]. Academic studies have
already argued that security-related stress has not been given due importance in information systems
research.[8] There is a need for a well-defined role of individuals towards internet anxiety [9].
In the 2000s, a new psychological term was coined, related to the anxiety created by online
health-information search. The print media of the UK first coined the term ‘cyberchondria’. This term
became more relevant during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. Rise in the rampant search of health-
related information during this time made it more relevant. Such information search was done with or
without checking the authenticity of source websites. After some time, it was also seen that such anxiety
reinforced anxiety related to data privacy, plausibly resulting from an unbridled search.
During the pandemic in 2020, the whole world shifted to online for personal and professional
requirements. On one hand, this led to progress in digital literacy, on the other; it also created the need
for educating people about cyber-security. In 2020 alone, officially more than 40 large-scale
conferences have happened in India on cyber-security [10]. Other than this, numerous institutional level
programs have happened on the same. Such information dissemination, although necessary, also can
lead to significant anxiety about data security. Previous research indicated a possible solution to such
anxiety through a balanced information search [11]. Using a Foucauldian concept of Bio-power, the
role of ‘knowledge’ can be scrutinized in this case for a contextual understanding of such anxiety.
Recently, in the beginning of 2021, the world saw one of the largest digital exodus related to the
messaging application Whatsapp. India was also among the frontrunners. Multiple sources have already
accepted that the majority of people consider Google and Facebook to be primary encroachers of data
privacy.[12] Their advertisement feeding process is dependent on collecting personal information and
digital-activity patterns of individuals. The pervasiveness of data-security stress has already been
indicated by scholars, related to personal-identifiers of different sectors [13, 14]. Such anxiety becomes
graver when it comes to personal communications. Whatsapp was overtaken by Facebook a few years
back. People started migrating to other messaging apps due to Whatsapp’s announcement of a data-
sharing agreement with Facebook. In a span of 72 hours, other messaging apps like Telegram or Signal
observed an almost 500% increase in new users [15]. Such incidents and review of previous research
indicate the necessity to delve into the pattern and determinants of data-privacy anxiety among people
and the possible ways of dealing with it [16] [17].
Overview of the literature showed that data-security has been mostly researched in the field of
computer application and electronics, where most emphasis has been on the processes. In behavioral
sciences there has been a dearth of work on this topic. Few studies which have talked about the effects
of data-security breach limited the work within suggestions of campaigns to increase awareness among
people. There is almost no work evaluating the effects of such programs or delving into the pedagogical
need. The psychological anxiety due to data-breach is talked about in very few studies, in the last few
years, but those works are mostly limited to health-information search, evidently not expanding to
everyday usage of the internet in all aspects of our lives. Literature review also indicated the imminent
necessity of such psychological and educational approach to study this indispensable part of media.
2. Research Question
Present study aimed to find the determinants of data-privacy anxiety among the Indian public in the
age group of 20 to 40 through qualitative research design.
Incidentally, study framed the following sub-research questions,
Whether the use of a mobile-banking facility is influenced by anxiety about data breaches.
50
Does the pattern of health-information search during the pandemic show any influence of
privacy policies of accessed websites?
Are we comfortable using online apps for daily routines?
Is the use of pay apps for various purchases a threat to bank account data?
Use of Medical apps or fitness apps amid COVID-19 and the possibility of data leakage.
How do we reduce overthinking on data security?
Is Social media blowing up data breaches alarmingly?
Hacking Is Alarming. So are Data Brokers?
Are information security policies raising the anxiety of people by invading privacy?
3. Methods
This paper followed a qualitative exploratory research design. Through open-ended semi-structured
interviews for data collection, this study delved into the contextual determinants of data-privacy
anxiety. 10 participants from young-adult to middle-adult age group 20-40 were interviewed for this
study. Participants belonged to middle socio-economic status and urban background. The interviews
were audio-recorded following APA ethical guidelines for the same. Interviews were conducted in
English and were not translated for analysis. Braun & Clarke’s [55] method of reflexive thematic
analysis was followed for analyzing the data. The research adopted a social-constructivist
epistemological lenses for data analysis. The article has acknowledged the authors, whose work have
been built upon conceptually, through in-text citations and full reference in the reference section. Table
1 and 2 below presents the interview guide used for the study and the demographic details of the
participants.
Table 1.
Interview Guide
Can you share your experience of using online platforms? (Probe: what are the apps they use?
Which apps they are comfortable with)
Which apps do you use for your daily needs? Which features make you comfortable using
them?
How many apps do you use that include financial exchange? Are you comfortable using them?
What makes you feel this way? (Probe: pros & cons)
How was your experience of using online platforms post COVID-19 breakout? (Probe: which
purposes they use it & are comfortable with it)
Are there any challenges or concerns in using online platforms? What are those?
Do you possess knowledge about data security? How do you know about it? (Probe: whether it
is organised programme like seminars or random unofficial/official news or messages)
Does this knowledge help you in any way? (probe: if yes/no how and why; any modifications in
online behavior after that)
Table 2.
Demographic details of the participants
Pseudonym Gender Age SES Locality
P1 M 38 Middle Urban
P2 M 35 Middle Urban
P3 F 25 Middle Urban
P4 M 21 Middle Urban
P5 F 31 Middle Urban
P6 F 28 Middle Urban
P7 M 26 Middle Urban
P8 F 32 Middle Urban
51
Pseudonym Gender Age SES Locality
P9 M 22 Middle Urban
P10 F 30 Middle Urban
4. Results and Discussion
Academic research indicated the need for balanced-research in reduction of anxiety related to data-
hacking among people.[11] Most of the academic research on this field focused on population from
developed countries. However, India has approximately 400 million internet users.[1] Literacy rate in
India is around 75%, however digital literacy is way lesser.[18] Scholars have indicated that how users
interpret security measures on online platforms can influence their related sense of assurance or
anxiety.[19] It can be argued that lack of digital literacy is one of the main determinants of internet-
anxiety. Digitally illiterate or partially literate sections of the population may fall prey to data-hacking
more commonly. Consequently, such experiences may reinforce internet-anxiety among this
population.
Emerging themes from analysis of data were primarily connected to the anxiety igniting the
possible debate of utilitarian value of digital medium versus security or safety approach. Major themes
that emerged from the data and the converging sub themes have been presented in Table 3. In total,
there are 6 main themes and 26 subordinate themes as revealed by the thematic analysis.
Table 3.
The emerging themes and subthemes from the analysis of data
Themes Sub Themes
Convenience a utilitarian approach Preference for convenience over privacy
Comfort with instant solution of needs
Majority of need satisfaction
Life-boat during pandemic restrictions
Perception of control Usage of data-privacy features in app
Customized settings in most applications
Less frequent conflict of data breach
Promises of data-encryption by digital app
Anxiety and learned helplessness Dependency on digital platforms
Government mandates
Lifestyle modifications
Anxiety over high-stake information
Reports of digital vigilance and data leakage
Frequency of cross platform customized
advertisements
Knowledge about governmental reach of information
Difficulty in meaning-making for digital-migrants
Compensatory mechanism for Usage of safe-mode internet search
anxiety Limiting data-sharing
Avoidance of using unnecessary platforms
Frequent change of passwords
52
Themes Sub Themes
Data-security - an oxymoron Inability of abandoning usage of digital platforms
Permanence of digital footprint
Mutual exclusiveness of data privacy and seamless
usage
Circumscribing function of Too much information creating anxiety and panic
knowledge Information increasing habit of generalization
Information creating conflict, self-blame and guilt
It was seen mostly in the responses of middle adult participants, that the nature of complicated and
ambiguous usage of English language in most applications create a sense of anxiety in them. This
generation of people are mostly digital-migrants, who are not acquainted with many digital terms and
their appropriate applicatory meanings. In line with these, another factor that should be discussed is the
use of the English language primarily in most data-privacy statements. Although multiple online
websites and applications provide the options of using regional language for communication. These
have started after the digital India movement of the Indian government. Primary intentions behind such
policies were to facilitate internet use among maximum Indians, who may not be comfortable with the
English language. The majority of regional language facilities are provided for search engines and
messaging facilities, whereas the processes of making accounts in those websites follow the English
language primarily. Similar trends are seen in social-media platforms. This paper argues this to be a
possible factor influencing anxiety related to breach of data-privacy. To make accounts in any of the
popular or most used websites and applications, users are required to accept privacy statements and
agreements. The length of such agreement policies and invariable use of English language leads to blind
acceptance of such policies among a significant section of Indian population. Consequently, this leads
to underlying apprehension and anxiety about data-privacy, as most users are not fully aware of details
of the policies. This paper proposes a possible solution of reducing such data-privacy anxiety through
dealing with the contextual determinant of language barrier. Online platforms should mandatorily
provide options of reading privacy agreements in regional languages, to make it completely legible for
users. Additionally, they should also focus on content organization of privacy agreements. Such
agreements should consist of a short content with highlighted relevant points on privacy protection and
avoid technical jargons to accommodate digital-migrants.
As reflected in news reports, online giants like - Google or Facebook are considered by many
Indians as privacy-invaders.[12] Major determinant of such perception is based on the personalization
of advertisements shown in individual’s accounts and webpages. The data of the current study also
showed a similar pattern, where participants across age-groups reported increased anxiety caused by
customized advertisements in other digital platforms, based on their usage of one platform. Similar
concerns were argued by Laluandala in his systematic review of Facebook data-breach.[20] The
personalized nature of advertisements make it evident that personal information and digital-activity
patterns of individuals are not only recorded in the websites, but also shared with marketing agencies.
The recent 2021 digital exodus from messaging app Whatsapp was a reflection of such data-privacy
anxiety. As reflected in participants’ opinions, social media platforms like Facebook provide free
gaming options, which are mostly dependent on data-sharing processes. The primary data collected by
the social media website or application is also shared with the gaming website or application, which
follows considerably lower levels of data-privacy measures. This paper argues that such data-sharing
agreements between online platforms are a significant source of data-leakage and this issue becomes
more profound due to the fact that the majority of users in these platforms are young people, making
impulsive choices about those gaming options.
This paper points out with the help of emerging themes from the data, that anxiety or tendency to
overthink about data security may even increase while using paying applications of such companies.
According to a 2019 survey google pay is one of the most used paying applications in India, with 59%
of Indians using it [21]. In the present study, almost 100% of users informed about using the same
53
paying application. Such paying applications ask for online banking passcode and access to all phone
contacts during initial creation of the account. Such compliance activities in online platforms have been
identified as a source of consumer anxiety [17]. This paper argues that lack of trust in the owner
company and the processes of initiation work are determining factors in creating anxiety while using
such applications. Previous research also points out the role of individual perception and belief to be
moderating factors of data-privacy anxiety [9]. Additionally, the learned helplessness arising from
obligatory and habitual usage of financial exchange applications function as contributory factors in the
increment of anxiety, as reflected in participants’ opinion of this study. Online platforms need to work
on building trust about data safety among users. During the pandemic, multiple sections of society were
obligated to use online modes of payments for daily needs. This was primarily due to the fear of
contamination through physical currency exchange. Such circumstances created a ground of
overarching anxiety related to data-privacy and simultaneous sense of learned-helplessness. Scholars
have indicated the necessity of focussing on autonomy and subjective rights of users in order to reduce
security anxiety.[22][23][24] Current paper argues for a change in such data-privacy processes, in terms
of providing options of alternative ways of connecting paying applications to bank accounts, bypassing
banking password entries or phone contact access. Data-sharing agreements between social-media
platforms and related gaming or entertainment applications need to be modified as well to curb data-
breach. Such modifications may reduce convenience, although might subsequently reduce data-privacy
anxiety.
Similar scenarios can be observed in relation to online shopping applications - like amazon, big
basket or flipkart. Previous studies indicated the frequency of online shopping among the young
population in India [25]. However, the pandemic and subsequent lockdown changed the online
shopping scenario. From convenience-based it turned into necessity-based shopping. The participants
of the current study clearly indicated their preference towards convenience in comparison to data
privacy, although the knowledge of the same is a frequent source of anxiety regarding data-leakage.
Recently Google officially declared top 5 search trends in India during 2020 and it was evident from
that report that Indians are moving online for their daily basic requirements, from food to medical
assistance [26]. Consequently there was an expansion of online buyers’ age-group and usage of a variety
of applications. Participants also expressed the reality of their habitual modification of lifestyle which
has made the cessation of digital usage impossible. It was also seen that participants adopt compensatory
mechanisms to deal with such anxiety, mostly focusing on some sort of control over data-sharing.
Majority of financial exchange applications have taken a few additional convenient measures like QR-
code usage, although scholars indicated those measures also contributing to consumers’ data-security
anxiety [27]. It is an established fact that the more people use the online search engines, the more
anxious they are about data-privacy [28].
Research on social media networks reveals that information collection patterns of these platforms
create anxiety about privacy and data-security among users [29]. These apps also have personalized
product advertisements, based on previous search patterns. This creates an underlying perception of
lack of agency and subsequent anxiety related to data-security. These shopping applications also add
payment methods and chosen options as default. If users are unaware or lack literacy regarding changing
the options, data-hacking and cyber-crime possibilities increase. The data of the current study clearly
showed a trend of this anxiety across age-groups of participants, where middle-aged participants
expressed higher amounts of worry and anxiety over data-leakage. Previous research indicated that
online platforms need to become more transparent about their intentions in order to decrease user
anxiety.[30][31][32] They also argue the importance of perception of intent over digital-security advice,
where mere listed advice do not function well without required transparency on the same.[33][34] This
paper argues that there is a strong need for change in such policies to increase assurance and decrease
anxiety among users. Online shopping applications need to focus on securing financial information of
individuals, thereby not opting for default payment options.
As discussed previously, internet search for health-related information and subsequent anxiety
became prevalent since the outbreak of pandemic. This led to the coining of the term ‘cyberchondria’.
Studies on health-information search trends indicate that trust of users depends on credibility of the
website and convenience of use [35]. This paper argues that logically these two factors may be opposing
each other at times. Participants of the current study also articulated this paradox, indicating the
obligatory usage of multiple digital platforms and apparent lack of control over data-sharing, along with
54
illusory perception of control over the same. Indian media promoted government directives and
websites for health-related information during pandemic. US based studies previously showed that users
might become anxious about data security with perceptions of government-surveillance [36]. One
participant of the current study also mentioned about an incident where an apparently “permanently”
deleted message in a messaging application, surfaced up during a government mandated data-
surveillance by her government-employee family member. Participants articulated frequently about the
permanence of digital-footprint in such contexts, which is a strong determinant of learned-helplessness
and anxiety related to data-security. They also indicated how health-related information searches were
one of the primary sources of their anxiety during the pandemic. Indian government websites are mostly
less easy to access in comparison to private search-engines and websites, which provide direct short
answers. Empirical studies also have shown that limited knowledge of users make them vulnerable to
online frauds frequently.[37] Mentioned scenario of accessibility coupled with limited digital literacy
in India is a possible determining factor for data-leakage and subsequent reinforcement of internet-
anxiety. In this context this paper argues, being in-line with the emerging themes, that digital security
in India is almost an oxymoron, where the permanency of digital footprint and accessibility of data by
authorities make it pragmatically impossible to have any privacy once an individual enrolls into the
digital world.
Educating internet users about possible data-breach and required safety-measures is one of the
primary necessities of the moment. Academic research has indicated both positive and negative roles
of technical knowledge in reducing data privacy anxiety [38], [39], [40], [41]. Such research studies
also talk about the importance of mental health of people related to data-privacy anxiety [42], [43]. As
mentioned above multiple government and private initiatives on such fronts have been witnessed in
recent times.[10] Previous studies talked about the effects of such information dissemination on the
online company trades, but effects on consumers have rarely been discussed [44], [45]. However, it can
also be argued that over-information on topics of privacy can influence subsequent anxiety in users.
Most of the formal institutional awareness initiatives in contemporary society highlight all possible
methods of data-hacking and privacy-breach. Requirement of a social constructivist approach in studies
of data-privacy anxiety has been advocated before [46]. Current study used such approach to analyses
the systemic determinants of anxiety rooted in the authoritative structure of knowledge dissemination.
Participants of the present study indicated the circumscribing role of such knowledge acquisition, in
comparison to the empowering function. Majority (80%) of these participants spoke about the increased
anxiety and panic that they faced after acquiring such knowledge from multiple formal and informal
sources. They also articulated regarding increment in compensatory activities to deal with such arising
anxiety, and the resultant helplessness and hopelessness through realization of its futility. Research
studies highlighting experiential accounts of employees related to technological fields hint at the
downside of over and continuous information related to data-breach and security measures.[47] Current
paper uses Foucauldian lens of biopower, to argue that such abundant ‘knowledge’ can work even in
the way of circumscribing online movement of every individual, making them paranoid about possible
privacy-invasion. Individuals are continuously thinking about possible ways of data-breach, which in
its own way creates anxiety. With limited technical and digital knowledge, individuals may develop a
sense of inadequacy related to protection from surveillance and data-hacking. This issue becomes more
profound when discussed related to mobile-internet. Scholars pointed out the increasing data-breach
and related anxiety in use of mobile-internet [48]. Yu indicated gender and age to be moderating factors
for usage of mobile-banking, along with credibility of medium [49]. The current sample of participants
also showed similar trends of differential belief in competence and mastery over mobile-internet usage
among male and female participants and young-adult and middle-adult participants. Previous research
shows the importance of users’ trust on the platform in mobile-banking segments [50]. Majority of older
generations’ people in India don’t feel comfortable using online-banking due to their limited technical
and digital knowledge, which corroborates the digital-migrant participants’ accounts in the current
study. Scholars already pointed out the legal difficulties of dealing with data-breach issues [51]. Limited
technical knowledge and age may be additional factors in such circumstances. Uncertain circumstances
of the current pandemic-stricken world and compelling need to depend on online mediums for daily
requirements have significantly added to it. Previous studies indicated the necessity for a user-involving
approach [52]. This paper argues that a critical pedagogy approach needs to be adopted for conducting
programs on data-safety. Such programs should be customized depending on the social-locations of
55
audiences. There is ample evidence that data-privacy concerns are different for different age-groups
and sections of people.[19] Such inclusive pedagogical approach can work as a possible solution to
curb anxiety caused by abundance of information dissemination. Simultaneously such initiatives will
also promote safe usage of online facilities among all age groups from all parts of India.
5. Conclusion and suggestions for further studies
Data-privacy anxiety is only a beginning for a country like India, which has been accentuated by the
obligatory usage of digital platforms in contemporary pandemic scenarios. As people gradually become
aware of the data-thefts and cyber crimes happening around the world, the data-privacy anxiety will
further increase in size. This current study argues an imminent necessity for critical pedagogical
approaches in offering cyber-awareness programs. There is a need to move towards accessible
functional approaches instead of following traditional knowledge dissemination methods. The paper
additionally argues in favor of transparent people-friendly policies to ensure data-security and decrease
anxiety among internet-users. There is a need to consider contextual parameters and limitations of
probable users while drafting the policies. This current paper also advocates a necessity to study such
indispensable and complicated parts of media from a multidisciplinary approach. Drafts of digital
applications need to incorporate educational methodologies and psychological insights into their
process.
The present paper urges the future researchers to delve deep into this topic with more quantitative
and qualitative research. Qualitative research may focus on the users’ behavior and psychological
determinants behind usage of online applications and quantitative research may focus on developing
people-friendly policies and foolproof methods for application developers.
6. Conflict of Interest
There is no conflict of interest among the authors. All authors have equally contributed to the paper.
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