Requirements Engineering for Sociotechnical Systems that May Include Mixed Initiative Interactions between Humans and Machines Steven Alter School of Management University of San Francisco San Francisco, USA alter@usfca.edu Abstract—Mixed initiative interactions between humans and view of STSs and MXNs provides a richer basis for RE since machines pose many challenges for requirements engineering STSs that contain MXNs also include other human activities. (RE), especially in the broader context of sociotechnical systems (STSs), a topic that has been studied and debated since the This paper explains how the WSP provides a basis for RE 1950s. This paper builds on the work system perspective (WSP), for an STS and for an MXN that might serve as one of its which can be used to describe an STS’s operation, structure, subsystems. It expands on a brief summary of the WSP by purpose, and context in substantial depth regardless of whether highlighting specific WSP-related topics that are useful for some of its subsystems include mixed initiative interactions. It analyzing MXNs, including portrayals and characteristics of uses the acronym MXN to refer to systems that contain such WSs and WS elements, performance variables, facets of work, interactions. This paper explains how aspects of the WSP are functions performed by subsystems, WS design principles, useful for identifying requirements for STSs in general and for division of responsibilities for specific activities, interaction the much smaller set of STSs that include mixed initiative patterns, and different degrees of smartness in devices and interactions, a topic emphasized by the CFP of RESOSY 2021, systems. Failure to consider those topics in RE for an MXN or the First International Interdisciplinary Workshop on an STS containing an MXN is analogous to engineering a self- Requirements Engineering for Sociotechnical Systems. driving car without consider the context of use, e.g., weather, inattentive human drivers, road conditions, obstacles, and Keywords—sociotechnical system, mixed initiative interactions with vehicles that may or may not be self-driving. interaction, work system, work system perspective II. BACKGROUND ABOUT SOCIOTECHNICAL SYSTEMS I. BUILDING ON A TRADITIONAL VIEW OF STS The STS movement began in England in the 1950s. The Practices and thinking associated with STSs have been essence of the sociotechnical approach is described as follows applied, debated, and expanded since the 1950s. Traditional by Enid Mumford, a long-term leader in the STS movement views of STS involve systems whose human participants use (see tribute [4]): “Throughout its history, practitioners have technologies for their activities. A 1977 article in the first always tried to achieve its two most important values: the need volume of MIS Quarterly (over four decades ago) viewed an to humanize work through the redesign of jobs and democracy STS as a combination of separable technical and social at work. In order to realize these goals, the objective of socio- systems [1]. The title of a 2019 MIS Quarterly article [2] technical design has always been ‘the joint optimization of the referred to the “sociotechnical axis of cohesion of the IS social and technical systems’. Human needs must not be discipline.” Those articles use a longstanding concept of STS forgotten when technical systems are introduced. The social that is much broader than the MXN subsystems that the and the technical should, whenever possible, be given equal RESOSY 2021 CFP denotes as STSs. weight.”[5, p. 321] … “The most important thing that socio- Distinguishing between the traditional view of STS and technical design can contribute is its value system.” … “This the view of STS in CFP is necessary to avoid confusion in this tells us that although technology and organizational structures paper. The CFP states that STSs are “systems that are built to may change, the rights and needs of the employee must be aid humans in specific human tasks” and STSs should be given as high a priority as those of the non-human parts of the addressed as “mixed initiative systems where the computer or system.” [5, p. 338] the human can take initiative, monitor events, decide what to After summarizing the development and application of do next, and perform tasks.” That view of STS echoes sociotechnical thinking, [5] expresses disappointment and Licklider’s 1960 vision of “man-computer symbiosis” as “an doubts about its limited influence in the world of 2006, the expected development in cooperative interaction between men year when Mumford died. One explanation is that the and electronic computers. It will involve very close coupling underlying ideas of STS have spread to so many different between the human and the electronic members of the domains that it has become diluted to “a banner under which partnership.” [3] In effect, STSs as characterized by the CFP many different concepts and design principles can flourish are a relatively new type of subsystem of STSs that have been that have little relation to one another.” [6, p. 234]. For imagined for many decades. This paper does not speculate example, [7] identifies four major variants on STS theory and about the source of the CFP’s appropriation of the term STS. practice: North American STS, Australian STS, Scandinavian Goal and organization. This paper shows how a view of STS, and Dutch STS. On the other hand, the diffusion of STS STS based on the WSP illuminates requirements-related ideas over many decades could be viewed as a success. For issues that likely would be overlooked by focusing tightly on example, [8, p. 9] notes that “the work design and processes the CFP’s assumption that STSs are MXNs. A WSP-centric of both STS and flexible manufacturing have been successfully integrated into most organizations today. It is Copyright © 2022 by the author. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). difficult to find an organization that does not encourage team is a type of STS regardless of whether it is an IS or is a system work, employee participation and decision making” even devoted to physical activities. though “STS began to disappear both academically and in practice in the late 80s early 90s.” An IS is a WS most of whose activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, deleting, Part of the discussion of STS frequently assumes that an manipulating, and/or displaying information. This definition STS can be divided into a technical system and a social system differs from 20 previous definitions in [12] and was one of 34 (e.g., [1, 5]). That approach has serious shortcomings for RE definitions of IS noted in [13]. It differs from assuming an IS because the social and technical systems overlap [9]. Many is a tool that is “used” or that an IS exists to produce processes in STSs are both social and technical because representations of real world systems [14]. An example is a humans doing some of the work may not conform with sociotechnical accounting IS in which accountants decide how specifications due to social issues. The information in an STS specific transactions and assets will be handled for tax is both social and technical because it includes computerized purposes and then produce monthly or yearend financial information and interactions between humans. Even statements. This is an IS because its activities are devoted to technologies often have social aspects since many STS processing information. It is also supported by a totally participants use their own computers, smartphones, and other automated IS that performs calculations and generates reports. technologies whose selection is partly social in nature. In both cases, an IS that is an integral part of another WS cannot be analyzed, designed, or improved thoughtfully The WSP addresses that difficulty by treating a WS as a without considering how IS changes affect that WS. The same single integrated system, thus eliminating the separation idea applies to MXNs that are subsystems of larger WSs. between social and technical systems and covering both STSs with human participants and totally automated systems. Its Projects, service systems, self-service systems, and some explicit attention to WS participants and their characteristics supply chains (interorganizational WSs) are other important and concerns recognizes humanistic values instead of special cases. For example, software development projects focusing primarily on technical specifications. and other projects are WSs designed to produce specific product/services and then go out of existence. Thus, a project III. SUMMARY OF THE WORK SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE that creates or improves a MXN is a WS on its own right. The WSP has evolved over many years. Its development Consistent with other ideas in the WSP, MXNs can be started with an attempt to create a systems analysis method for viewed as a highly restricted special case of WSs. The fact that business professionals, which was articulated as the work a WS contains a MXN subsystem does not imply that the WS system method (WSM) [10]. The ideas underlying WSM were itself should be viewed as a MXN (in the same way that a WS formalized as work system theory (WST), and subsequent that uses IT typically should not be viewed as an IT system). developments related to service systems, workarounds, design MXNs may not be ISs because the humans and/or totally principles, and other topics have been viewed as extensions of automated parts of an MXN may perform physical work. WST [11]. The core of WSP is work system theory (WST), which applies equally to WSs in general and to ISs. WST’s Work system framework: a basic understanding of a three components are the definition of WS, the work system WS. The nine elements of the WS framework (Fig. 1) are the framework, and work system life cycle model. Since ideas elements of a basic understanding of a WS’s form, function, related to WST and WSM have been presented many times, and environment during a period when it is stable enough to this section will focus on key points that minimize retain its identity even though incremental changes may occur, misunderstanding of the entire approach. The following such as minor personnel substitutions or technology upgrades. summary includes a WS interpretation of the idea of STS. Processes and activities, participants, information, and technologies are completely within the WS. Customers and Definition of work. The WSP assumes that work is the product/services may be partially inside and partially outside application of human, informational, physical, and other because customers often participate in activities within a WS resources to produce product/services for internal or external and because product/services take shape within a WS. customers (or for oneself). Work can occur in businesses, Environment, infrastructure, and strategies are outside of the governments, homes, and other situations where resources are WS even though they have direct effects within a WS and may used purposefully to produce outcomes. be affected by major changes in significant WSs. Definition of WS. A work system is a system in which human participants and/or machines perform work (processes and activities) using information, technology, and other resources to produce specific product/services for internal and/or external customers (or for themselves) [11]. The first and/or addresses trends toward automation of work by saying that WSs may be STSs (with human participants doing some of the work) or totally automated. A key point is that many of the same WS ideas apply equally to sociotechnical WSs and totally automated WSs and to MXNs. Those ideas include many of the properties of the elements shown in Figure 1. Special cases. The most important distinction in describing special cases of WS is the difference between a Fig. 1. The work system framework sociotechnical WS in which human participants perform some of the activities vs. totally automated WS where all activities The following clarifications are often useful: Customers are performed by machines. That distinction says that a MXN refers to people or organizations that receive product/services produced by a WS. This includes internal and external Coverage of sociotechnical systems. The WSP covers all customers. The term product/services is used to bypass operational systems in organizations, including STSs that can controversies about special characteristics of products vs. be viewed as WSs and totally automated systems that can be services. The term processes and activities is used because the viewed as WSs. Those systems include all ISs, projects, and activities in some WSs are not structured as processes. other special cases of WS. Infrastructure refers to human, informational, and technical resources that are viewed as shared by multiple WSs instead Thus, the WSP covers a much broader domain than the of being associated primarily with one WS. An example of domain identified in the CFP for RESOSY2021. The CFP human infrastructure is an IT group that can be viewed as a prioritizes “systems built to aid humans in specific human resource used by multiple WSs. “Elements of the WS tasks” [in situations that involve] “mixed initiative … where framework” will be abbreviated as “WS elements” even the computer or the human can take initiative, monitor events, though the last three elements are viewed as outside of a WS decide what to do next, and perform tasks.” The WSP covers and often are controlled elsewhere. those situations and many others. It covers “systems built to aid humans in specific human tasks” but it also covers systems Work system life cycle model (WSLC): how WSs that use automation to replace people who previously change over time. ISs and other WSs evolve through a performed specific tasks and also systems that perform totally combination of planned change through projects and automated tasks that were never performed by people. The unplanned change through adaptations and workarounds (Fig. WSP covers systems with mixed initiative interactions of 2). WSLC phases (initiation, development, implementation, humans and computers, but also covers systems where operation and maintenance) may be performed in different responsibilities of humans and computers are structured to be ways. Typical activities and responsibilities (e.g., designing, completely separate. debugging, training, etc.) associated with specific phases apply for waterfall, agile, prototyping, use of off-the-shelf A key issue that bears reiteration is the interpretation of the applications, and shadow IT, even when several phases terms system and STS in regard to this discussion. Computer overlap or iterate. science papers often assume that systems are software- controlled entities that operate on computers. In contrast, the WSP covers both sociotechnical WSs (where some of the work is done by humans) and totally automated WSs (where all of the work is automated). Many computer science techniques that focus specifically on software are more effective than the WSP for understanding nuances of software and software development. This paper’s emphasis lies elsewhere, i.e., in explaining how the WSP provides insights for RE for STSs in general and for MXN subsystems of STSs. IV. WSP VIEW OF REQUIREMENTS ENGINEERING This section uses ideas from a 2021 ACM Tech Talk [15] by Bertrand Meyer to summarize the nature of requirements Fig. 2. The work system life cycle model (WSLC) engineering (RE) and to illustrate a WSP view of RE. The next section will focus on aspects of the WSP that are Both planned and unplanned changes often affect multiple especially relevant to RE for STSs that contain subsystems WS elements, not just technologies. The development phase “built to aid humans in specific human tasks” and that involve creates or acquires and then tests software and other resources “mixed initiative … where the computer or the human can needed for implementation in the organization. The take initiative, monitor events, decide what to do next, and implementation phase involves much more than installation of perform tasks.” (the domain described by the CFP). software on computers. The WSLC’s four idealized phases According to [15], RE can be described in terms of PEGS (and related sub-phases) express a waterfall-like approach to (Project, Environment, System, and Goals) that are equally identifying things that should happen as a WS evolves applicable to waterfall projects and to agile projects that iteratively. Many WSLC topics remain valid when agile proceed through iterations of sprints. Each element of PEGS approaches are used for developing software, such as the is reflected in the WSP. In the WSLC, formal projects occur importance of WS changes rather than just software through initiation, development, and implementation phases development, evolution over time rather than one-time each of which involves activities mentioned earlier. RE occurs projects, the simultaneous importance of planned and during the initiation phase and may continue during the unplanned change, and the relevance of key activities and development phase. Goals are set during the initiation phase responsibilities within each phase. The key activities and and may be revised in subsequent phases. The surrounding responsibilities remain even if the phases are partially merged environment appears as one of nine WS elements (Fig. 1) and and regardless of whether the WS uses homegrown software, is reflected in the deliberations during the initiation phase of commercial application software, or external platforms. For the WSLC. The system is a WS that may have multiple example, regardless of whether aspects of development and sociotechnical or totally automated subsystems, each of which implementation are partly merged, it is still necessary to can be analyzed or designed based on WST and WSM. determine requirements (at an appropriate level of detail), acquire, produce, or fix software that is needed, test and debug Below are brief descriptions of four WSs that could software, decide how to implement WS changes, identify involve mixed initiative interactions between a person and an implementation problems, train WS participants, and so on. automated entity that will be called a robot even though it may or may not have a physical realization (e.g., as in robotic process automation). The sketches distinguish briefly between the main WS and an MXN. In all four cases, a realistic RE identify issues such as whether serious conflicts exist between effort would need to cover the WS (the system in PEGS terms) different user stories. within which the MXN exists as a subsystem. Failure to consider the larger WS would result in requirements that treat V. ASPECTS OF THE WORK SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE THAT ARE the MXN’s environment too narrowly to permit evaluation of PERTINENT TO REQUIREMENTS ENGINEERING FOR MXNS its effectiveness for meeting WS goals. Topics within the WSP build outward from the definition An interactive tutor. The broad class of WSs that provide of WS and include the main ideas in WST, the application of instruction may or may not include an MXN whose activities those ideas in WSM, and a series of extensions related to are controlled partly by a student and partly by a robot serving design principles, service systems (in a business sense), as an automated tutor. The extent of shared control can be workarounds, WS interactions, and other topics. Covering the described along a dimension that starts with the student merely entire WSP would require a book-length discussion. Since that answering questions from the robot. Highly interactive is not practical for current purposes, this section emphasizes learning is more like a dialogue between the student and the WSP topics that are relevant to all WSs but are especially robot. That dialogue is part of a larger WS that may involve relevant to MXNs. Those topics include portrayals and other activities such as recording the student’s progress and characteristics of WSs and WS elements, performance understanding of specific items in the material to be learned, variables for WSs and WS elements, facets of WSs and WS assignment of students to learning programs, monitoring the elements, functions performed by WS subsystems, WS design continuity of the student’s attention, and so on. principles, division of responsibilities for specific activities, interaction patterns, and different degrees of smartness in A customer service chatbot. The chatbot is part of a devices and systems. larger WS of providing customer service. For example, a presentation [16] about the Moveworks capability for IT help A. Portrayals of WSs and WS elements desks noted that its chatbot answers around 40% of IT help Portrayals of WSs are alternative concepts for visualizing desk queries and escalates the rest to human customer service the entirety of a WS or WS element. (See Fig. 3.) The representatives who may escalate queries further if needed. following list identifies alternative portrayals that are relevant The 40% reduction in queries handled by humans reduces to many WSs. For each portrayal, the list includes a question customer service costs and eliminates many delays. The extent or issue that could be relevant to RE for a specific MXN. to which the chatbot is an MXN was not clear from [16]. An imagined flight control system. The WS in this instance can be summarized as flying a small personal aircraft from a starting point to a destination. Activities in that WS include deciding on the flight plan, performing a safety check, taking off, flying to the destination, landing, and performing aircraft-related activities that occur after landing. A robotic component of an MXN could inform the pilot about problems related to weather along the flight plan. The pilot could ask the robot to estimate how much fuel will remain when the aircraft reaches its destination. Also, the pilot could ask the robot to suggest a modification of the flight plan if unexpected turbulence occurs. In effect, the robot would offload some of the activities normally performed by pilots and, perhaps, air traffic controllers. An imagined RE assistant. RE can be viewed as a type Fig. 3. Portrayals of WSs and WS elements of WS in which analysts perform activities directed at producing requirements. Applying the definition of WS, RE is  Customers might be portrayed as recipients of a system (a WS in its own right) in which human participants product/services or as beneficiaries of and/or machines perform processes and activities using product/services. Does this MXN have any customers information, technology, and other resources to produce by either portrayal? specific product/services for internal and/or external customers. By that definition, some future type of RE might  Product/services might be portrayed as outputs that are be partly or totally automated. The requirements are delivered vs. as results of extensive collaboration. product/services that are produced, and the customers are What identifiable product/services does this MXN people or organizations that receive and use the requirements. produce? Assume (quite optimistically) that knowledge about RE is  Processes might be portrayed as idealizations of how sufficiently codified that an MXN subsystem of a WS for RE work should be done vs. as descriptions of how work could include a robot that monitors the current state of a is executed. How does RE for this MXN consider the structured requirements document. The robot could ask possibility of noncompliance with specifications? human analysts questions such as whether noncompliance via  Participants might be portrayed as WS components human agency has been considered or whether past that follow specifications or as people with human workarounds have indicated areas where the target WS needs needs and interests. To what extent are both portrayals to be improved. Conversely, the analyst could ask the robot to used in RE for this MXN? examine the current state of the requirements document and to apply codified knowledge about specific aspects of RE to  Information might be portrayed as knowledge, as a Errors and delays in other parts of the WS that an MXN conveyor of meanings that inform people, or as serves will likely affect the operation of the MXN. Thus, machine-processed digital objects. How does RE for metrics related to a MXN’s performance at specific times this MXN apply those different views of information? often might depend on the state and operation of other parts of the WS in which the MXN exists. For example, downtime or  Technologies might be portrayed as tools used by users errors in processes that provide inputs to the MXN could cause who perform work vs. as technical components of a the MXN to operate more slowly or to stop operating at all, WS vs. as automated services that perform work. How which likely would affect the metrics for the MXN and its does RE for this MXN reflect those portrayals? human participants during that period. Other important B. Characteristics of WSs and WS elements performance variables that might be overlooked during RE involve job performance and job satisfaction of participants in In the WSP, characteristics are properties used for an MXN. For example, participating in the MXN could lead describing or analyzing WSs, WS elements, or other to better or worse job performance and job satisfaction. resources. As shown in Fig. 4, characteristics of a WS as a whole include scalability, flexibility, resilience, degree of centralization, and fragility. Characteristics of processes and activities include degree of structure, complexity, integration, and rhythm. Characteristics of information include precision, age, traceability, usability, and bias. Key characteristics for WSs as a whole (the top of Fig. 4) are also important for MXNs, especially where RE issues related to the level of scalability, flexibility, resilience, capacity, and agility for an entire WS may have direct impacts on RE for a MXN within the WS. Fig. 5. Performance variables forf WSs and WS elements D. Facets of WSs and WS elements Facets of entities are alternative faces or aspects of an entity that can be observed or analyzed. The idea of “facet” is like a facet of a cut diamond. It is not a separate component of the diamond, but rather a face or aspect that can be observed or analyzed. Fig. 6 identifies facets of WSs as a whole and of each WS element. The most useful set of facets for MXN-related RE is the Fig. 4. Characteristics of WSs and WS elements 18 “facets of work” that can be viewed as facets of the processes and activities in a WS (see Fig. 6). Those facets Other characteristics in Fig. 4 also have direct implications apply to both sociotechnical and totally automated systems, for MXNs. A high degree of structure in a MXN’s processes are associated with specific concepts, brings evaluation and activities implies that interactions between humans and criteria and design trade-offs, have sub-facets, and bring open- machines are largely about following scripts, whereas a less ended questions for starting conversations [18]. Some facets structured MXN would allow much less scripted interactions overlap (e.g., making decisions and communication). Whether that could require a semblance of smartness or intelligence or not to include a concept as a facet of work was based on [17]. Information also brings interesting RE questions for that concept’s association with useful concepts, evaluation MXNs, such as how to describe or limit information-related criteria, and design trade-offs. For example, making decisions, bias on the part of the human participant or the robot. Realistic communicating, and providing information all are associated RE analysis should say something about the knowledge and with useful concepts, evaluation criteria, and design trade- skill that MXN participants need to bring to interactions offs. The 18 facets were the end-product of an iterative design within the MXN. Assumptions about a participant’s personal process that might have led to 14 or 27 facets. Future research goals and ambitions should be included in RE because playing might lead to a different set of facets of work. a role in a MXN might or might not be consistent with those The central contribution of facets of work for RE related goals and ambitions. to MXNs is that the facets of work provide a way to be specific C. Performance variables for WSs and WS elements about requirements for many specific types of capabilities that otherwise might have been overlooked. For example, consider Performance variables in the WSP (Fig. 5) are concepts the facets learning, planning, improvising, and maintaining used for describing or analyzing how well entities or their security. Having a list of facets makes it less likely that those constituents operate. Required levels of performance variables topics will be overlooked in RE related to MXNs and to WSs would be viewed as “non-functional requirements” in the in general. Linkage of each element of that list to some version world of software. of associated concepts, evaluation criteria, design trade-offs, sub-facets, and open-ended questions identified in [18] could Fig. 7 uses the format of a “work system snapshot,” a basic provide further support for RE. tool from the WSM, to organize 24 design principles related to sociotechnical WSs. Each design principle could be stated more elaborately, more like a fully specified software design pattern that is viewed as a reusable solution to a commonly occurring problem (e.g., [19]). Unlike axioms or laws, design principles often have exceptions, may be mutually inconsistent, and may conflict in practice. For example, as noted in [20], in some cases the principle “please the customers” may conflict with “do the work efficiently.” Many of the design principles in Fig. 7 (or other design principles that have been proposed) could be applied during RE for MXNs. For example, the design principles in the part of Fig. 7 for processes and activities includes design principles related to variability, efficiency, judgment, problem control, quality control, boundaries between steps, and the match between work practices and participants. All of those ideas could be explored as part of an RE effort focused on an MXN. Fig. 6. Facets of WSs and WS elements E. Functions performed by subsystems The following list identifies a variety of functions that might be performed through interactions between a human participant and a robot within an MXN. This list was first imagined in relation to functions that an IS might perform to support a WS, with the assumption that the list might be expanded through a structured analysis of IS case studies.  providing access to information,  defining and enforcing rules for collecting or sharing information,  providing methods for aggregating information,  providing methods for analyzing information,  controlling activity sequences in workflows,  enforcing compliance with business rules, Fig. 7. Design principles for sociotechnical WSs  creating alarms when predefined conditions occur,  controlling or facilitating coordination, G. Division of responsiblities for specific activities An important design question for MXNs is the division of  suggesting decisions, responsibilities, i.e., the extent to which the person or the  triggering automated functions, machine is responsible for each activity in a MXN subsystem. RE for a MXN would be superficial if it did not deal with that  performing totally automated tasks autonomously. question either in a general way or by being explicit about This list shows that RE for an MXN (or other WS) could whether a human or a machine is responsible for initiating be supported by a list of common functions even though it each activity, for monitoring each activity, for declaring an says nothing about whether the person performs those activity complete, and for transitioning to other activities. functions for the robot or vice versa. Many other functions A WSM tool called a service responsibility table (SRT) might be included. As with the facets of work, this type of list [21] was designed for other purposes but can be used for could help analysts make sure they have considered a range of describing the division of responsibilities in a MXN. An SRT common possibilities. More broadly, some version of a list of applied to a MXN would be a table consisting of at least three functions potentially helps in realizing that RE for a MXN columns: 1) a list of activities in the MXN, 2) responsibilities should be specific about functions being performed regardless of a person regarding each of those activities, 3) related of whether they are initiated by either a human or a robot. responsibilities of an automated entity regarding each of those F. WS design principles activities. Additional columns could clarify responsibilities for specific aspects of each activity, such as initiation, quality Design principles are statements that express desired control, error detection, and declaration of completion. An properties of designed entities within a domain. Design SRT can also be expanded by adding columns related to topics principles may apply to all WSs within a domain, to specific such as mutual visibility or at least awareness of non- types of WS within the domain, and/or to WSs associated with interactive activities performed by the human or machine. a community of practice. H. WS interactions and interaction patterns intermediary), actor type (e.g., person or machine), actor Interactions between WSs include unidirectional, mutual, rights for each role, actor responsibilities for each role, cause or reciprocal actions, effects, relationships, influences, or or trigger of the interaction, desired outcome, generic process interplay between two or more WSs. Systems theorists such or activities, possible states of an interaction, and alternative as Ackoff [22] and Checkland [23] observe that systems enactments. Occasionally relevant elements of interaction typically exist to serve other systems and that understanding patterns include constraints, risks and risk factors, relevant or analyzing a system requires understanding whatever concepts, interaction verification, and interaction evaluation systems are being served and how those systems are being I. Smartness of devices and systems. served. A thorough analysis needs to go further by considering planned and unplanned interactions with other systems Finally, RE related to MXNs might consider ideas about regardless of whether they serve or are served by a focal the smartness of devices and systems since the notion of MXN system of primary interest. The many types of interactions tends to imply some degree of smartness in a computerized between systems range from repetitive interactions such as device. An approach to smartness of devices and systems is supplier-customer transactions to transient interactions related explained in [17], which identifies generic capabilities that to mishaps or malicious actions. A thorough understanding of might be executed by computerized algorithms. RE might system interactions should include indirect impacts such as apply that idea without getting entwined in debates about the effects of inconsistent goals, inconsistent standards, and definition, nature, or limitations of artificial intelligence. [17] inconsistent treatment of personnel. It also should consider uses four categories to organize numerous capabilities that direct and indirect impacts when other entities perform might be built into devices or systems: unexpectedly or inadequately. In general, RE should consider  Information processing. Capture information, system interactions both while also focusing on systems in transmit information, store information, retrieve isolation and while focusing on the surrounding context. Thus, information, delete information, manipulate even a superficial look at an MXN in the context of RE should information, display information. consider its interactions with other WSs, with resources used, or with other aspects of the WS in which it operates.  Action in the world. Sensing, actuation, coordination, communication, control, physical action. The idea of interaction patterns can be used when thinking about the requirements for capabilities within an MXN.  Internal regulation. Self-detection, self-monitoring, Preliminary research [24] identified 19 interaction patterns self-diagnosis, self-correction, self-organization. within four categories. Those interaction patterns include:  Knowledge acquisition. Sensing or discovering, One-way patterns are unidirectional interactions that classifying, compiling, inferring or extrapolating from have been studied in relation to the language action examples, inferring or extrapolating from abstractions, perspective (LAP). Patterns within this category are inform, testing and evaluating. command, request, commit, and refuse. All of those patterns As noted in [17], the smartness built into a device or involve unidirectional interactions. system (in a MXN) for any of the above capabilities can be Coproduction patterns are bilateral patterns involving characterized along the following dimension: jointly produced interactions whose instantiations can be  Not smart at all. Does not perform activities that observed as sequences of unidirectional interactions, some of exhibit the capability. which may be described as speech acts. Coproduction patterns include converse, negotiate, mediate, share resource, and  Scripted execution. Performs capability-related supply resource. The first three are fundamentally about activities according to prespecified instructions. bilateral speech situations, whereas the other two are fundamentally about coordination as described by  Formulaic adaptation. Adaptation of capability- coordination theory [25, 26]. related activities based on prespecified inputs or conditions. Access and visibility patterns are unidirectional patterns concerning one entity obtaining access or visibility related to  Creative adaptation. Adaptation of capability-related another entity and about countermeasures to prevent access activities based on unscripted or partially scripted and visibility. These patterns include monitor, hide, protect, analysis of relevant information or conditions. and attack. The first of these involves a typical management  Unscripted or partially scripted invention. activity. The next two involve defensive maneuvers. The last Invention of capability-related activities using pattern represents a threat. unscripted or partially scripted execution of a Unintentional impact patterns are the least articulated workaround or new method. patterns because of the great uncertainty about the sources and effects of many unintentional impacts. Examples include VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION overlap, market-based, spillover, indirect, and accidental This paper started by noting that the CFP of RESOSY interactions. While it may not be possible to anticipate those 2021 characterizes STSs as “systems that are built to aid impacts, ignoring the possibility that they will occur is humans in specific human tasks” that should be addressed as certainly not a beneficial RE practice. “mixed initiative systems where the computer or the human can take initiative, monitor events, decide what to do next, and While the ideas in [24] surely could be elaborated further, perform tasks.” That characterization is much more restricted it is worth noting that likely elements of typical interaction than typical characterizations of STS that researchers and patterns in the first three categories include actor roles (e.g., practitioners have used for decades. The acronym MXN requestor/respondent, initiator/recipient, partner, or (mixed initiative system) was used to pursue the CFP’s focus [5] E. 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