=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3187/paper4
|storemode=property
|title=Fostering Gender Equality to Stimulate Economic Growth: Legal and Institutional Measures to Enhance Economic Security of EU Member-states and Ukraine
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3187/paper4.pdf
|volume=Vol-3187
|authors=Volodymyr Tokar,Ellana Molchanova,Yuliia Honcharova,Tetiana Zhyrova,Kateryna Ilikchiieva
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/cpits/TokarMHZI21
}}
==Fostering Gender Equality to Stimulate Economic Growth: Legal and Institutional Measures to Enhance Economic Security of EU Member-states and Ukraine==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3187/paper4.pdf
Fostering Gender Equality to Stimulate Economic Growth: Legal
and Institutional Measures to Enhance Economic Security of EU
Member-states and Ukraine
Volodymyr Tokar1, Ellana Molchanova1, Yuliia Honcharova1, Tetiana Zhyrova1,
and Kateryna Ilikchiieva2
1
Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics, 19 Kyoto str., 02156, Kyiv, Ukraine
2
Kyiv National Economic University named after Vadym Hetman, 54/1 Peremogy ave., 03057, Kyiv, Ukraine
Abstract
The article discloses the pathway for enforcing gender equality via legal measures to
stimulate economic growth enhancing economic security of EU member-states and Ukraine.
Our calculations using Spearman coefficient have shown that the rank correlation coefficient
of GDP per capita and gender gap in EU member-states is statistically significant. Therefore,
there is a direct and weak connection between gender gap levels and GDP per capita at
current market prices of EU member-states. Female empowerment overcoming stereotypes,
including gradual eradicating of the false concept of so-called “masculine” jobs, still needs
further expansion as only a small percentage of women reach the highest echelons of power
influencing domestic and international political, economic and social processes. The global
Covid-pandemic creates numerous threats and opportunities caused by social and economic
restructuring including the expansion of flexible and remote works, online learning, welfare
challenges, etc. The article proves that governments should concentrate on achieving gender
equality in health care, education, finance, economy, politics and other spheres to respond to
modern challenges. The experience of developed countries, including EU member-states,
shows that guaranteeing gender equality results in social and economic progress, therefore,
ensuring economic security of the state.
Keywords1
Economic development, EU member-states, gender equality, gender gap index, GDP per
capita, legal regulation, Ukraine.
Introduction
Ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women and men is top priority for any democratic
nation. Gender equality is the value and goal to be achieved to guarantee justice and social
development. Female empowerment and gender equality is one of 17 key goals of sustainable
development adopted by the United Nations [13], also being the universal criterion for assessing the
level of socioeconomic development and freedom. For instance, female empowerment in education
improves health care, increases household incomes, and reduces infant mortality.
The United Nations and its different specialized institutions have adopted more than 100
regulations aimed at implementing the principle of gender equality. However, the lack of national
legal mechanisms for enforcing international law results in terrible outcomes. For example, women are
not entitled to have passports without the consent of their husbands in more than 30 countries that are
parties to the Beijing Declaration on Gender Equality [14]. Married females are not allowed to decide
which country's citizenship they will receive in 22 countries. Women can not work without the
CPITS-II-2021: Cybersecurity Providing in Information and Telecommunication Systems, October 26, 2021, Kyiv, Ukraine
EMAIL: v.tokar@knute.edu.ua (V. Tokar); e.molchanova@knute.edu.ua (E. Molchanova); y.goncharova@knute.edu.ua (Y. Honcharova);
zhyrova@knute.edu.ua (T. Zhyrova); ilikchiieva@gmail.com (K. Ilikchiieva)
ORCID: 0000-0002-1879-5855 (V. Tokar); 0000-0001-8043-1916 (E. Molchanova); 0000-0003-4679-3715 (Y. Honcharova); 0000-0001-8321-
6939 (T. Zhyrova); 0000-0003-1297-0293 (K. Ilikchiieva)
©️ 2022 Copyright for this paper by its authors.
Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)
38
permission of their husbands in more than 20 countries. There are countries where women do not have
the right to vote (Saudi Arabia, Vatican), or this right is limited, for example, you need to have primary
or higher education (Brunei, Lebanon, UAE). The absence or insufficient number of relevant court
precedents discourage females to fight for their rights as they do not believe in justice any more.
In contrast, the “Gender Equality in the European Union” states that equal treatment for men and
women has been one of the main principles of the EU since its inception, and the principle of gender
equality is central to all its activities [2]. The EU Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025 foresees that
females and males will have equal chances for success and leadership within European society [3].
The European Union is a wonderful example of pursuing the gender equality at at the regional level
and ensuring its implementation in the process of political decision-making. Therefore, the impact of
gender equality on socioeconomic development of EU member-states needs further investigations.
Literature Review
The abundant literature on gender equality discloses a lot of components, problems and prospects
for achieving gender equality. For instance, Kabeer [6] demonstrates that patriarchal principles shrink
opportunities for economic growth hindering gender equality. Mitra, Bang, and Biswas [9] question
the efficiency of fighting for equal outcomes instead of pursuing the meritocratic principle of equal
opportunities for men and women. Portalatin [10] points out potential danger of technological
progress for women as they are more vulnerable in fighting for the downsizing job market.
Agarwal [1] argues that ending poverty and hunger depends on successful achieving gender
equality. Johnson, Kovarik, Meinzen-Dick, Njuki, and Quisumbing [5] proved that legalizing female
ownership of agricultural assets stimulates the growth on households’ income. Moreover, Theriault,
Smale, and Haider [11] showed that eradicating the stereotype of incapable female managers results
in the growing agricultural sustainability. Finally, Kolinets and Tokar [Kolinets] shed light on
competitiveness of EU agricultural business entities managed by females.
Vinska and Tokar investigated the interconnection between political female empowerment and
economic development and gender equality in European countries; revealed the interplay between
gender equality and socioeconomic development, as well as innovation competitiveness of EU
member-states; verified the adherence to European standards of gender equality in Ukrainian banks
[15-19].
Despite numerous articles on different aspects of gender equality, only Tokar and Wasilewska
[12] elaborated the conceptualization of gender equality within the framework of economic security
of the state. Therefore, this article aims at expanding this topic disclosing legal measures designed to
bridge the gender gap resulting in enhancing economic security.
Methodology
We use the Spearman coefficient to investigate the interplay between GDP per capita at current
market prices and values of gender gap index of EU member-states in 2016-2020.
Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. shows that the average growth of GDP per capita at
current market prices in EU member-states was 11.6 percent in 2016-2020. Luxembourg had the
biggest average value of 98235 euros, while Bulgaria was the laggard with only 7938 euros.
Table 1
The ranks of EU Member-states by GDP per capita at current market prices in 2016-2020, in euros
Year 2016 2017 2019 2020 Average Change, % Rank
Luxembourg 93930 95170 102200 101640 98235 8.2 1
Ireland 57020 62550 72260 73590 66355 29.1 2
Denmark 49420 51140 53370 53600 51883 8.5 3
Sweden 46990 47730 46390 45850 46740 -2.4 4
Netherlands 41590 43090 46880 45870 44358 10.3 5
Austria 40920 41990 44780 42300 42498 3.4 6
39
Finland 39580 41080 43510 42940 41778 8.5 7
Germany 38070 39440 41510 40120 39785 5.4 8
Belgium 37960 39130 41460 39110 39415 3 9
France 33430 34250 36140 34040 34465 1.8 10
Italy 28210 28940 29980 27780 28728 -1.5 11
Malta 23190 25010 26920 24630 24938 6.2 12
Spain 23980 24970 26430 23690 24768 -1.2 13
Cyprus 22230 23410 25270 23400 23578 5.3 14
Slovenia 19590 20820 23170 22010 21398 12.4 15
Portugal 18060 19020 20800 19660 19385 8.9 16
Estonia 16670 18130 21220 20440 19115 22.6 17
Czech
16790 18330 21140 20120 19095 19.8 18
Republic
Greece 16170 16470 17110 15490 16310 -4.2 19
Slovakia 14920 15540 17220 16770 16113 12.4 20
Lithuania 13560 14950 17470 17510 15873 29.1 21
Latvia 12940 13890 15900 15430 14540 19.2 22
Hungary 11830 12960 14950 13940 13420 17.8 23
Poland 11110 12170 13900 13640 12705 22.8 24
Croatia 11170 11920 13340 12170 12150 9 25
Romania 8630 9580 11510 11290 10253 30.8 26
Bulgaria 6820 7400 8780 8750 7938 28.3 27
Average 27955 29225 31615 30584 29845 11.6 X
Source: authors’ own calculations and compilation based on [4]
Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. indicates that highest average scores of gender
equality among EU Member-states in 2016-2020 belonged to Finland (0.834), Sweden (0.820), and
Ireland (0.797), while Cyprus (0.692), Malta (0.691), and Hungary (0.677) were the outsiders.
Table 2
The ranks of EU Member-states by Gender Gap Index in 2016-2020
Year 2016 2017 2019 2020 Average Change, % Rank
Finland 0.823 0.821 0.832 0.861 0.834 0.038 1
Sweden 0.816 0.822 0.820 0.823 0.820 0.007 2
Ireland 0.794 0.796 0.798 0.800 0.797 0.006 3
Germany 0.778 0.776 0.787 0.796 0.784 0.018 4
France 0.778 0.779 0.781 0.784 0.781 0.006 5
Denmark 0.776 0.778 0.782 0.768 0.776 -0.008 6
Latvia 0.756 0.758 0.785 0.778 0.769 0.022 7
Spain 0.746 0.746 0.795 0.788 0.769 0.042 8
Slovenia 0.805 0.784 0.743 0.741 0.768 -0.064 9
Lithuania 0.742 0.749 0.745 0.804 0.760 0.062 10
Belgium 0.739 0.738 0.750 0.789 0.754 0.050 11
Bulgaria 0.756 0.756 0.727 0.746 0.746 -0.010 12
Portugal 0.734 0.732 0.744 0.775 0.746 0.041 13
Netherlands 0.737 0.747 0.736 0.762 0.746 0.025 14
Estonia 0.731 0.734 0.751 0.733 0.737 0.002 15
Austria 0.709 0.718 0.744 0.777 0.737 0.068 16
Poland 0.728 0.728 0.736 0.713 0.726 -0.015 17
Croatia 0.711 0.712 0.720 0.733 0.719 0.022 18
Luxembourg 0.706 0.712 0.725 0.726 0.717 0.020 19
40
Romania 0.708 0.711 0.724 0.700 0.711 -0.008 20
Italy 0.692 0.706 0.707 0.721 0.707 0.029 21
Slovakia 0.694 0.693 0.718 0.712 0.704 0.018 22
Czech
0.688 0.693 0.706 0.711 0.700 0.023 23
Republic
Greece 0.692 0.696 0.701 0.689 0.695 -0.003 24
Cyprus 0.684 0.684 0.692 0.707 0.692 0.023 25
Malta 0.682 0.686 0.693 0.703 0.691 0.021 26
Hungary 0.670 0.674 0.677 0.688 0.677 0.018 27
Average 0.736 0.738 0.745 0.753 0.743 0.017 X
Source: authors’ own calculations and compilation based on [20-23]
Moreover, the logical and legal method has enabled us to identify the effectiveness of international
law in ensuring gender equality. Finally, we used the system and structural method to substantiate pos-
sible legal measures aimed at enhancing the level of economic security of Ukraine.
Results
Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден.consists of ranks assigned to attribute Y (GDP per
capita) and factor X (gender gap).
Table 3
Ranks of EU Member-states by Gender Gap Index and GDP per Capita in 2016-2020
Gender gap (X) GDP per capita (Y) Rank X, dx Rank Y, dy
0.737 42498 12 22
0.754 39415 17 19
0.746 7938 14 1
0.719 12150 10 3
0.692 23578 3 14
0.700 19095 5 10
0.776 51883 22 25
0.737 19115 12 11
0.834 41778 27 21
0.781 34465 23 18
0.784 39785 24 20
0.695 16310 4 9
0.677 13420 1 5
0.797 66355 25 26
0.707 28728 7 17
0.769 14540 20 6
0.76 15873 18 7
0.717 98235 9 27
0.691 24938 2 16
0.746 44358 14 23
0.726 12705 11 4
0.746 19385 14 12
0.711 10253 8 2
0.704 16113 6 8
0.768 21398 19 13
0.769 24768 20 15
0.820 46740 26 24
Source: authors’ own calculations
41
Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. is the reshaped matrix due to the necessity to overcome
the problem of the same ranks contained in Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден..
42
Table 4
The Reshape Matrix of Ranks
Rank X, dx Rank Y, dy (dx – dy)2
12.5 22 90.25
17 19 4
15 1 196
10 3 49
3 14 121
5 10 25
22 25 9
12.5 11 2.25
27 21 36
23 18 25
24 20 16
4 9 25
1 5 16
25 26 1
7 17 100
20.5 6 210.25
18 7 121
9 27 324
2 16 196
15 23 64
11 4 49
15 12 9
8 2 36
6 8 4
19 13 36
20.5 15 30.25
26 24 4
Sum: 378 Sum: 378 Sum: 1799
Source: authors’ own calculations
We calculate the checksum to verify the matrix:
(1 + 𝑛)𝑛 (1 + 27)27 (1)
∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗 = = = 378
2 2
We compute the Spearman correlation coefficient:
∑ 6𝑑2 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 (2)
𝜌 =1−6
𝑛3 − 𝑛
Where:
1 (3)
𝐴= ∑(𝐴𝑗3 − 𝐴𝑗 )
12
1 (4)
𝐵= ∑(𝐵𝑘3 − 𝐵𝑘 )
12
j – numbers of bundles in order for the attribute x;
Аj - the amount of identical ranks in the j-th bundle in x;
k – numbers of bundles in order for the attribute y;
Вk – the amount of identical ranks in the k-th bundle in y.
6 ∗ 1799 + 1
𝜌=1− = 0.451
273 − 27
The attribute Y and factor X are connected directly, but weakly.
The critical point is:
43
(5)
1 − 𝜌2
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡(𝛼, 𝑘) ∗ √
𝑛−2
Where:
n – the sample size;
𝜌 – the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient;
t(α,k) – the critical point of the two-sided critical region, which is found from the table of critical
points of the Student's distribution, according to the significance level α and the number of degrees
of freedom k = n-2.
If |𝜌| < Tcritical , then we do not reject the null hypothesis, and the rank correlation is not significant.
If |𝜌| > Tcritical, then the null hypothesis is rejected, and the rank correlation is significant. Applying
the Student’s table, we discover that t(α/2, k) = (0.05/2; 25) = 2.385.
1 − 0.4512
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2.385 ∗ √ = 0.43
27 − 2
As Tcritical < 𝜌, we reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, the rank correlation coefficient of GDP
per capita at current market prices and gender gap levels of EU member-states is statistically
significant and the rank correlation between the scores for two tests is significant.
The idea of the possibility of gender equality considering physiological features of males and
females raises many questions to which there are not always unambiguous answers. Recently, there
have been debates as to whether equal rights result in equal opportunities. After all, the very idea of
gender equality is about the result. Will a woman and a man be able to achieve equal results as a
result of the same actions and circumstances? Despite the fact that women, along with men, have the
right to education, work, the right to vote in elections, etc., most women face a “glass ceiling” when
it comes to top management in both public and private sectors. But why?
Women between the ages of 20 and 45 are not an “attractive” workforce for employers, as there
is a high probability that such a woman will take a maternity leave. This stereotype creates fears in
women who postpone the birth of a child indefinitely, and as a result have complications during late
pregnancy, moreover, generally refuse to give birth, referring to the statistics of congenital
malformations of the child, due to the “old” age of the mother.
Such situation negatively affects demographics and violates men’s right to parenthood! A woman
who sacrifices her career for the sake of having a child, and at the same time gives the highest
positions to men who do not have to leave social and working life due to childbirth and childcare.
Ultimately, trying to combine a career, motherhood, and a large array of “family responsibilities”
leads to mental disorders and shortens a female life expectancy.
Legislative support for a gender approach in the labor sphere, which includes ensuring the
“absence” of women during pregnancy and care for children from the social and working environment
can be a separate incentive for women and as a result positively influence national economies. It is
economically responsible and efficient to equip children's rooms, ensure flexible hours for working
mothers, etc. Moreover, the EU member-states proved that certain incentives can motivate men to
take a childcare leave on a par with women. Thus, more than 80 countries ensure the right of a parent
to take a paid childcare leave. Therefore, the creation of gender-friendly jobs, the provision of quality
education, medical care and the creation of effective, gender-oriented social programs and full access
to information are the prerequisites of a stable national economic growth resulting in enhancing
economic security of the state.
Moreover, ensuring economic security of the state requires the consideration of gender equality.
We support the idea of Tokar and Wasilewska [12] to amend the Order of the Ministry of Economic
Development and Trade of Ukraine “On Adopting the Methodical Recommendations on Evaluating
the Level of Economic Security of Ukraine” including gender aspect in the process of evaluating
economic security of the state.
Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. contains recommendations for modifying the set of
indicators of economic security of the state.
44
Table 5
Modified Indicators of Economic Security of the State Considering Gender Equality
Component of Economic Security of the
# Modified Indicators
State
The ratio: female health life
1
expectancy over male value, percent
The ratio of infant mortality of girls
and boys (mortality of children under
2
one year) per one thousand live births,
percent Demographic Security
The ratio of the rate of natural
3 increase per one thousand people of
the existing population, percent
The ratio of women and men of elderly
4
age, percent
The ratio of difference between labor
productivity indices and real average
5
monthly wages of women and men,
percent
The ratio of unemployment rates of
6
women and men, percent
The ratio of long term unemployment
7
(over 12 months) of women and men
Macroeconomic Security
The ratio of wages to social benefits
8 and other current transfers of women
and men, percent
The ratio of employment of women
and men in the informal sector of
9 economy, percentage to the total
number of women and men,
respectively, percent
The ratio of women and men with
average total earnings per capita per
10
month below 75 percent of median
total income level, percent
The ratio of HIV-infected women and
11 men diagnosed for the first time per
100,000 population, percent
The ratio of women and men with Social Security
active tuberculosis diagnosed for the
12
first time per 100,000 population,
percent
Employment ratio of women and men
aged 15-70 years, percentage of
13
population of the relevant age group,
percent
Source: [12, p. 124]
We suggest that this Order should be modified considering the current pandemic, and new
indicators, such as the ratio of females and males infected by the Covid-19 in total and different age
groups should be added to it.
45
We agree with Tokar and Wasilewska [12], that gender security indicators, as component of the
set of indicators for assessing the level of economic security of the state, should include findings of
the World Economic Forum (Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден.).
Table 6
The Global Gender Gap Index Structure
Sub-index Indicators Source of Information
The ratio: female labor force
International Labor Organization
participation over male value
Wage equality between women
World Economic Forum,
and men for similar work (survey,
Management Survey Questionnaire
data, normalized on a 0-to-1 scale)
Calculations of the World Economic
Forum on the basis of Methodology
Economic
The ratio: female estimated of the United Nations Development
participation
earned income over male value Program (Methodology Described
and opportunity
in the Human Development Report
2007/2008)
The ratio of legislators, public high-
rank officials, and female and male International Labor Organization
executives
The ratio: female professional and
International Labor Organization
technical workers over male value
United Nations Educational,
The ratio: female literacy rate over Scientific and Cultural Organization
male value (UNESCO), United Nations Literacy
Statistics Institute
The ratio: female net primary United Nations Literacy Statistics
Education
enrollment rate over male value Institute
The ratio: female net secondary United Nations Literacy Statistics
enrollment rate over male value Institute
The ratio: female gross tertiary United Nations Literacy Statistics
enrollment ratio over male value Institute
The sex ratio at birth (converted to United Nations Population Unit,
Healthcare and female-over-male ratio) World Population Forecasts
survival The ratio: female health life World Health Organization, Global
expectancy over male value Observations on Healthcare
The ratio: females with seats in Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women
parliament over male value in Politics Reviews
The ratio: females at ministerial Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women
Participation in
level over male value in Politics Reviews
Political Life
The ratio: number of years with a
Calculations of the World Economic
female head of state (last 50 years)
Forum
over male value
Source: [12, p. 125-126]
The mixture of supranational and national legislation on gender security, as well as international
and national mechanisms for implementing measures aiming at female empowerment are the only
solution for improving the status quo.
46
Conclusion
Our calculations have shown that the rank correlation coefficient of GDP per capita and gender
gap in EU member-states is statistically significant. Therefore, there is a direct and weak connection
between gender gap levels and GDP per capita at current market prices of EU member-states. Thus,
ensuring gender equality stimulates economic growth and results in enhancing economic security of
the state.
In spite of logical incentives for female empowerment and numerous efforts of the global
community to create the international legal framework to ensure equal rights and opportunities for
women and men, the latter ones continue to hold key positions in the management of large
corporations and public authorities, control the technological and defense sectors. With rare
exceptions, males are heads of national law enforcement agencies, armies, and the judiciary. Males
hold key positions in international agencies and organizations.
The efficiency of ensuring gender equality depends on effective combination of national and
international legal and institutional measures. Legal amendments include modification of regulations
on economic security of the state by ensuring the consideration of gender while assessing the level
of economic security and enhancing it, including the expansion of the set of indicators of economic
security of the state. The prospects of further research include elaborating applied legal and
administrative measures at local, national and supranational level aimed at eradicating gender
stereotypes and inequality.
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