Fostering Gender Equality to Stimulate Economic Growth: Legal and Institutional Measures to Enhance Economic Security of EU Member-states and Ukraine Volodymyr Tokar1, Ellana Molchanova1, Yuliia Honcharova1, Tetiana Zhyrova1, and Kateryna Ilikchiieva2 1 Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics, 19 Kyoto str., 02156, Kyiv, Ukraine 2 Kyiv National Economic University named after Vadym Hetman, 54/1 Peremogy ave., 03057, Kyiv, Ukraine Abstract The article discloses the pathway for enforcing gender equality via legal measures to stimulate economic growth enhancing economic security of EU member-states and Ukraine. Our calculations using Spearman coefficient have shown that the rank correlation coefficient of GDP per capita and gender gap in EU member-states is statistically significant. Therefore, there is a direct and weak connection between gender gap levels and GDP per capita at current market prices of EU member-states. Female empowerment overcoming stereotypes, including gradual eradicating of the false concept of so-called “masculine” jobs, still needs further expansion as only a small percentage of women reach the highest echelons of power influencing domestic and international political, economic and social processes. The global Covid-pandemic creates numerous threats and opportunities caused by social and economic restructuring including the expansion of flexible and remote works, online learning, welfare challenges, etc. The article proves that governments should concentrate on achieving gender equality in health care, education, finance, economy, politics and other spheres to respond to modern challenges. The experience of developed countries, including EU member-states, shows that guaranteeing gender equality results in social and economic progress, therefore, ensuring economic security of the state. Keywords1 Economic development, EU member-states, gender equality, gender gap index, GDP per capita, legal regulation, Ukraine. Introduction Ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women and men is top priority for any democratic nation. Gender equality is the value and goal to be achieved to guarantee justice and social development. Female empowerment and gender equality is one of 17 key goals of sustainable development adopted by the United Nations [13], also being the universal criterion for assessing the level of socioeconomic development and freedom. For instance, female empowerment in education improves health care, increases household incomes, and reduces infant mortality. The United Nations and its different specialized institutions have adopted more than 100 regulations aimed at implementing the principle of gender equality. However, the lack of national legal mechanisms for enforcing international law results in terrible outcomes. For example, women are not entitled to have passports without the consent of their husbands in more than 30 countries that are parties to the Beijing Declaration on Gender Equality [14]. Married females are not allowed to decide which country's citizenship they will receive in 22 countries. Women can not work without the CPITS-II-2021: Cybersecurity Providing in Information and Telecommunication Systems, October 26, 2021, Kyiv, Ukraine EMAIL: v.tokar@knute.edu.ua (V. Tokar); e.molchanova@knute.edu.ua (E. Molchanova); y.goncharova@knute.edu.ua (Y. Honcharova); zhyrova@knute.edu.ua (T. Zhyrova); ilikchiieva@gmail.com (K. Ilikchiieva) ORCID: 0000-0002-1879-5855 (V. Tokar); 0000-0001-8043-1916 (E. Molchanova); 0000-0003-4679-3715 (Y. Honcharova); 0000-0001-8321- 6939 (T. Zhyrova); 0000-0003-1297-0293 (K. Ilikchiieva) ©️ 2022 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org) 38 permission of their husbands in more than 20 countries. There are countries where women do not have the right to vote (Saudi Arabia, Vatican), or this right is limited, for example, you need to have primary or higher education (Brunei, Lebanon, UAE). The absence or insufficient number of relevant court precedents discourage females to fight for their rights as they do not believe in justice any more. In contrast, the “Gender Equality in the European Union” states that equal treatment for men and women has been one of the main principles of the EU since its inception, and the principle of gender equality is central to all its activities [2]. The EU Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025 foresees that females and males will have equal chances for success and leadership within European society [3]. The European Union is a wonderful example of pursuing the gender equality at at the regional level and ensuring its implementation in the process of political decision-making. Therefore, the impact of gender equality on socioeconomic development of EU member-states needs further investigations. Literature Review The abundant literature on gender equality discloses a lot of components, problems and prospects for achieving gender equality. For instance, Kabeer [6] demonstrates that patriarchal principles shrink opportunities for economic growth hindering gender equality. Mitra, Bang, and Biswas [9] question the efficiency of fighting for equal outcomes instead of pursuing the meritocratic principle of equal opportunities for men and women. Portalatin [10] points out potential danger of technological progress for women as they are more vulnerable in fighting for the downsizing job market. Agarwal [1] argues that ending poverty and hunger depends on successful achieving gender equality. Johnson, Kovarik, Meinzen-Dick, Njuki, and Quisumbing [5] proved that legalizing female ownership of agricultural assets stimulates the growth on households’ income. Moreover, Theriault, Smale, and Haider [11] showed that eradicating the stereotype of incapable female managers results in the growing agricultural sustainability. Finally, Kolinets and Tokar [Kolinets] shed light on competitiveness of EU agricultural business entities managed by females. Vinska and Tokar investigated the interconnection between political female empowerment and economic development and gender equality in European countries; revealed the interplay between gender equality and socioeconomic development, as well as innovation competitiveness of EU member-states; verified the adherence to European standards of gender equality in Ukrainian banks [15-19]. Despite numerous articles on different aspects of gender equality, only Tokar and Wasilewska [12] elaborated the conceptualization of gender equality within the framework of economic security of the state. Therefore, this article aims at expanding this topic disclosing legal measures designed to bridge the gender gap resulting in enhancing economic security. Methodology We use the Spearman coefficient to investigate the interplay between GDP per capita at current market prices and values of gender gap index of EU member-states in 2016-2020. Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. shows that the average growth of GDP per capita at current market prices in EU member-states was 11.6 percent in 2016-2020. Luxembourg had the biggest average value of 98235 euros, while Bulgaria was the laggard with only 7938 euros. Table 1 The ranks of EU Member-states by GDP per capita at current market prices in 2016-2020, in euros Year 2016 2017 2019 2020 Average Change, % Rank Luxembourg 93930 95170 102200 101640 98235 8.2 1 Ireland 57020 62550 72260 73590 66355 29.1 2 Denmark 49420 51140 53370 53600 51883 8.5 3 Sweden 46990 47730 46390 45850 46740 -2.4 4 Netherlands 41590 43090 46880 45870 44358 10.3 5 Austria 40920 41990 44780 42300 42498 3.4 6 39 Finland 39580 41080 43510 42940 41778 8.5 7 Germany 38070 39440 41510 40120 39785 5.4 8 Belgium 37960 39130 41460 39110 39415 3 9 France 33430 34250 36140 34040 34465 1.8 10 Italy 28210 28940 29980 27780 28728 -1.5 11 Malta 23190 25010 26920 24630 24938 6.2 12 Spain 23980 24970 26430 23690 24768 -1.2 13 Cyprus 22230 23410 25270 23400 23578 5.3 14 Slovenia 19590 20820 23170 22010 21398 12.4 15 Portugal 18060 19020 20800 19660 19385 8.9 16 Estonia 16670 18130 21220 20440 19115 22.6 17 Czech 16790 18330 21140 20120 19095 19.8 18 Republic Greece 16170 16470 17110 15490 16310 -4.2 19 Slovakia 14920 15540 17220 16770 16113 12.4 20 Lithuania 13560 14950 17470 17510 15873 29.1 21 Latvia 12940 13890 15900 15430 14540 19.2 22 Hungary 11830 12960 14950 13940 13420 17.8 23 Poland 11110 12170 13900 13640 12705 22.8 24 Croatia 11170 11920 13340 12170 12150 9 25 Romania 8630 9580 11510 11290 10253 30.8 26 Bulgaria 6820 7400 8780 8750 7938 28.3 27 Average 27955 29225 31615 30584 29845 11.6 X Source: authors’ own calculations and compilation based on [4] Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. indicates that highest average scores of gender equality among EU Member-states in 2016-2020 belonged to Finland (0.834), Sweden (0.820), and Ireland (0.797), while Cyprus (0.692), Malta (0.691), and Hungary (0.677) were the outsiders. Table 2 The ranks of EU Member-states by Gender Gap Index in 2016-2020 Year 2016 2017 2019 2020 Average Change, % Rank Finland 0.823 0.821 0.832 0.861 0.834 0.038 1 Sweden 0.816 0.822 0.820 0.823 0.820 0.007 2 Ireland 0.794 0.796 0.798 0.800 0.797 0.006 3 Germany 0.778 0.776 0.787 0.796 0.784 0.018 4 France 0.778 0.779 0.781 0.784 0.781 0.006 5 Denmark 0.776 0.778 0.782 0.768 0.776 -0.008 6 Latvia 0.756 0.758 0.785 0.778 0.769 0.022 7 Spain 0.746 0.746 0.795 0.788 0.769 0.042 8 Slovenia 0.805 0.784 0.743 0.741 0.768 -0.064 9 Lithuania 0.742 0.749 0.745 0.804 0.760 0.062 10 Belgium 0.739 0.738 0.750 0.789 0.754 0.050 11 Bulgaria 0.756 0.756 0.727 0.746 0.746 -0.010 12 Portugal 0.734 0.732 0.744 0.775 0.746 0.041 13 Netherlands 0.737 0.747 0.736 0.762 0.746 0.025 14 Estonia 0.731 0.734 0.751 0.733 0.737 0.002 15 Austria 0.709 0.718 0.744 0.777 0.737 0.068 16 Poland 0.728 0.728 0.736 0.713 0.726 -0.015 17 Croatia 0.711 0.712 0.720 0.733 0.719 0.022 18 Luxembourg 0.706 0.712 0.725 0.726 0.717 0.020 19 40 Romania 0.708 0.711 0.724 0.700 0.711 -0.008 20 Italy 0.692 0.706 0.707 0.721 0.707 0.029 21 Slovakia 0.694 0.693 0.718 0.712 0.704 0.018 22 Czech 0.688 0.693 0.706 0.711 0.700 0.023 23 Republic Greece 0.692 0.696 0.701 0.689 0.695 -0.003 24 Cyprus 0.684 0.684 0.692 0.707 0.692 0.023 25 Malta 0.682 0.686 0.693 0.703 0.691 0.021 26 Hungary 0.670 0.674 0.677 0.688 0.677 0.018 27 Average 0.736 0.738 0.745 0.753 0.743 0.017 X Source: authors’ own calculations and compilation based on [20-23] Moreover, the logical and legal method has enabled us to identify the effectiveness of international law in ensuring gender equality. Finally, we used the system and structural method to substantiate pos- sible legal measures aimed at enhancing the level of economic security of Ukraine. Results Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден.consists of ranks assigned to attribute Y (GDP per capita) and factor X (gender gap). Table 3 Ranks of EU Member-states by Gender Gap Index and GDP per Capita in 2016-2020 Gender gap (X) GDP per capita (Y) Rank X, dx Rank Y, dy 0.737 42498 12 22 0.754 39415 17 19 0.746 7938 14 1 0.719 12150 10 3 0.692 23578 3 14 0.700 19095 5 10 0.776 51883 22 25 0.737 19115 12 11 0.834 41778 27 21 0.781 34465 23 18 0.784 39785 24 20 0.695 16310 4 9 0.677 13420 1 5 0.797 66355 25 26 0.707 28728 7 17 0.769 14540 20 6 0.76 15873 18 7 0.717 98235 9 27 0.691 24938 2 16 0.746 44358 14 23 0.726 12705 11 4 0.746 19385 14 12 0.711 10253 8 2 0.704 16113 6 8 0.768 21398 19 13 0.769 24768 20 15 0.820 46740 26 24 Source: authors’ own calculations 41 Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. is the reshaped matrix due to the necessity to overcome the problem of the same ranks contained in Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден.. 42 Table 4 The Reshape Matrix of Ranks Rank X, dx Rank Y, dy (dx – dy)2 12.5 22 90.25 17 19 4 15 1 196 10 3 49 3 14 121 5 10 25 22 25 9 12.5 11 2.25 27 21 36 23 18 25 24 20 16 4 9 25 1 5 16 25 26 1 7 17 100 20.5 6 210.25 18 7 121 9 27 324 2 16 196 15 23 64 11 4 49 15 12 9 8 2 36 6 8 4 19 13 36 20.5 15 30.25 26 24 4 Sum: 378 Sum: 378 Sum: 1799 Source: authors’ own calculations We calculate the checksum to verify the matrix: (1 + 𝑛)𝑛 (1 + 27)27 (1) ∑ 𝑥𝑖𝑗 = = = 378 2 2 We compute the Spearman correlation coefficient: ∑ 6𝑑2 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 (2) 𝜌 =1−6 𝑛3 − 𝑛 Where: 1 (3) 𝐴= ∑(𝐴𝑗3 − 𝐴𝑗 ) 12 1 (4) 𝐵= ∑(𝐵𝑘3 − 𝐵𝑘 ) 12 j – numbers of bundles in order for the attribute x; Аj - the amount of identical ranks in the j-th bundle in x; k – numbers of bundles in order for the attribute y; Вk – the amount of identical ranks in the k-th bundle in y. 6 ∗ 1799 + 1 𝜌=1− = 0.451 273 − 27 The attribute Y and factor X are connected directly, but weakly. The critical point is: 43 (5) 1 − 𝜌2 𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡(𝛼, 𝑘) ∗ √ 𝑛−2 Where: n – the sample size; 𝜌 – the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient; t(α,k) – the critical point of the two-sided critical region, which is found from the table of critical points of the Student's distribution, according to the significance level α and the number of degrees of freedom k = n-2. If |𝜌| < Tcritical , then we do not reject the null hypothesis, and the rank correlation is not significant. If |𝜌| > Tcritical, then the null hypothesis is rejected, and the rank correlation is significant. Applying the Student’s table, we discover that t(α/2, k) = (0.05/2; 25) = 2.385. 1 − 0.4512 𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2.385 ∗ √ = 0.43 27 − 2 As Tcritical < 𝜌, we reject the null hypothesis. Therefore, the rank correlation coefficient of GDP per capita at current market prices and gender gap levels of EU member-states is statistically significant and the rank correlation between the scores for two tests is significant. The idea of the possibility of gender equality considering physiological features of males and females raises many questions to which there are not always unambiguous answers. Recently, there have been debates as to whether equal rights result in equal opportunities. After all, the very idea of gender equality is about the result. Will a woman and a man be able to achieve equal results as a result of the same actions and circumstances? Despite the fact that women, along with men, have the right to education, work, the right to vote in elections, etc., most women face a “glass ceiling” when it comes to top management in both public and private sectors. But why? Women between the ages of 20 and 45 are not an “attractive” workforce for employers, as there is a high probability that such a woman will take a maternity leave. This stereotype creates fears in women who postpone the birth of a child indefinitely, and as a result have complications during late pregnancy, moreover, generally refuse to give birth, referring to the statistics of congenital malformations of the child, due to the “old” age of the mother. Such situation negatively affects demographics and violates men’s right to parenthood! A woman who sacrifices her career for the sake of having a child, and at the same time gives the highest positions to men who do not have to leave social and working life due to childbirth and childcare. Ultimately, trying to combine a career, motherhood, and a large array of “family responsibilities” leads to mental disorders and shortens a female life expectancy. Legislative support for a gender approach in the labor sphere, which includes ensuring the “absence” of women during pregnancy and care for children from the social and working environment can be a separate incentive for women and as a result positively influence national economies. It is economically responsible and efficient to equip children's rooms, ensure flexible hours for working mothers, etc. Moreover, the EU member-states proved that certain incentives can motivate men to take a childcare leave on a par with women. Thus, more than 80 countries ensure the right of a parent to take a paid childcare leave. Therefore, the creation of gender-friendly jobs, the provision of quality education, medical care and the creation of effective, gender-oriented social programs and full access to information are the prerequisites of a stable national economic growth resulting in enhancing economic security of the state. Moreover, ensuring economic security of the state requires the consideration of gender equality. We support the idea of Tokar and Wasilewska [12] to amend the Order of the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine “On Adopting the Methodical Recommendations on Evaluating the Level of Economic Security of Ukraine” including gender aspect in the process of evaluating economic security of the state. Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден. contains recommendations for modifying the set of indicators of economic security of the state. 44 Table 5 Modified Indicators of Economic Security of the State Considering Gender Equality Component of Economic Security of the # Modified Indicators State The ratio: female health life 1 expectancy over male value, percent The ratio of infant mortality of girls and boys (mortality of children under 2 one year) per one thousand live births, percent Demographic Security The ratio of the rate of natural 3 increase per one thousand people of the existing population, percent The ratio of women and men of elderly 4 age, percent The ratio of difference between labor productivity indices and real average 5 monthly wages of women and men, percent The ratio of unemployment rates of 6 women and men, percent The ratio of long term unemployment 7 (over 12 months) of women and men Macroeconomic Security The ratio of wages to social benefits 8 and other current transfers of women and men, percent The ratio of employment of women and men in the informal sector of 9 economy, percentage to the total number of women and men, respectively, percent The ratio of women and men with average total earnings per capita per 10 month below 75 percent of median total income level, percent The ratio of HIV-infected women and 11 men diagnosed for the first time per 100,000 population, percent The ratio of women and men with Social Security active tuberculosis diagnosed for the 12 first time per 100,000 population, percent Employment ratio of women and men aged 15-70 years, percentage of 13 population of the relevant age group, percent Source: [12, p. 124] We suggest that this Order should be modified considering the current pandemic, and new indicators, such as the ratio of females and males infected by the Covid-19 in total and different age groups should be added to it. 45 We agree with Tokar and Wasilewska [12], that gender security indicators, as component of the set of indicators for assessing the level of economic security of the state, should include findings of the World Economic Forum (Ошибка! Источник ссылки не найден.). Table 6 The Global Gender Gap Index Structure Sub-index Indicators Source of Information The ratio: female labor force International Labor Organization participation over male value Wage equality between women World Economic Forum, and men for similar work (survey, Management Survey Questionnaire data, normalized on a 0-to-1 scale) Calculations of the World Economic Forum on the basis of Methodology Economic The ratio: female estimated of the United Nations Development participation earned income over male value Program (Methodology Described and opportunity in the Human Development Report 2007/2008) The ratio of legislators, public high- rank officials, and female and male International Labor Organization executives The ratio: female professional and International Labor Organization technical workers over male value United Nations Educational, The ratio: female literacy rate over Scientific and Cultural Organization male value (UNESCO), United Nations Literacy Statistics Institute The ratio: female net primary United Nations Literacy Statistics Education enrollment rate over male value Institute The ratio: female net secondary United Nations Literacy Statistics enrollment rate over male value Institute The ratio: female gross tertiary United Nations Literacy Statistics enrollment ratio over male value Institute The sex ratio at birth (converted to United Nations Population Unit, Healthcare and female-over-male ratio) World Population Forecasts survival The ratio: female health life World Health Organization, Global expectancy over male value Observations on Healthcare The ratio: females with seats in Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women parliament over male value in Politics Reviews The ratio: females at ministerial Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women Participation in level over male value in Politics Reviews Political Life The ratio: number of years with a Calculations of the World Economic female head of state (last 50 years) Forum over male value Source: [12, p. 125-126] The mixture of supranational and national legislation on gender security, as well as international and national mechanisms for implementing measures aiming at female empowerment are the only solution for improving the status quo. 46 Conclusion Our calculations have shown that the rank correlation coefficient of GDP per capita and gender gap in EU member-states is statistically significant. Therefore, there is a direct and weak connection between gender gap levels and GDP per capita at current market prices of EU member-states. Thus, ensuring gender equality stimulates economic growth and results in enhancing economic security of the state. In spite of logical incentives for female empowerment and numerous efforts of the global community to create the international legal framework to ensure equal rights and opportunities for women and men, the latter ones continue to hold key positions in the management of large corporations and public authorities, control the technological and defense sectors. With rare exceptions, males are heads of national law enforcement agencies, armies, and the judiciary. Males hold key positions in international agencies and organizations. The efficiency of ensuring gender equality depends on effective combination of national and international legal and institutional measures. Legal amendments include modification of regulations on economic security of the state by ensuring the consideration of gender while assessing the level of economic security and enhancing it, including the expansion of the set of indicators of economic security of the state. The prospects of further research include elaborating applied legal and administrative measures at local, national and supranational level aimed at eradicating gender stereotypes and inequality. References [1] B. Agarwal, Gender Equality, Food Security and the Sustainable Development Goals, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 34 (2018) 26–32. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2018.07.002. [2] European Commission, Gender equality in the European Union, 2011. URL: https://www.igual- dadenlaempresa.es/recursos/webgrafia/docs/gender-equality-in-the-european-union-2011.pdf. [3] European Commission, Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025, 2019. 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