=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3293/paper49
|storemode=property
|title=Sustainability of Small Ruminant Production in Rural Areas of Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3293/paper49.pdf
|volume=Vol-3293
|authors=Nazan Koluman,Serap Göncü
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/haicta/KolumanG22
}}
==Sustainability of Small Ruminant Production in Rural Areas of Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3293/paper49.pdf
Sustainability of Small Ruminant Production in Rural Areas of
Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey
Nazan Koluman 1 and Serap Göncü 1
1
Çukurova University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Adana-Turkey
Abstract
Small ruminant production can be an important component of a sustainable agri-food systems
in terms of providing quality source of plant nutrients, being an income generator, and
providing an environmentally sound use of certain lands. Animal production is facing a number
of challenges today; demands for a lower impact on the environment, such as reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and need to be balanced with a stable production and a good income.
There are many opportunities to increase the resilience and profitability of small ruminant
farms in rural areas. The aim of this study is to determine sustainability and resilience of
livestock production in rural areas of Eastern Mediterranean part of Turkey. For this aim, face-
to-face survey studies will be conducted to 100 livestock breeders in the area. The breeders
will be selected for scale of farms. At the end of the study farms will be classified as small,
medium and large and the profitability and production systems will be evaluated for ecological
principles and profitability.
Keywords 1
Sustainability, Profitability, Ecological principle, Sheep, Goat, Rural development, Eastern
Mediterranean, Turkey
1. Introduction
The special attributes of farm animals make them particularly important in rural resource poor
communities compared to other domestic ruminants include: ability to graze and utilize a wide range
of poor quality forages and browse; efficient utilization of marginal lands; carcasses which are
conveniently marketed or consumed over a short time period; and flocking instinct which makes
herding by younger and older members of family possible (Lebbie,2004).
Animal products (mainly meat and dairy products) have interesting characteristics in their levels of
flavor, taste, aromas and leanness as well as the specific composition of fats, proteins, amino and fatty
acids. Their quality is very much linked to historical and cultural uniqueness right through the
production, marketing and consumption chains. This refers at least in the Mediterranean region, to
farming systems with dominant extensive grazing situations, specific technologies and conditions for
slaughtering as well as for the transformation process of cheese making and its maturing (Boyazoglu
and Morand-Fehr,2001).
Smallholders are the backbone of the rural economy in especially developing countries that depend
heavily on agriculture. And the animal farming is one of the most important agricultural sectors for
smallholder farmers, as it plays a fundamental role in their daily income and self-sufficiency as well as
food security (Jaklic et al., 2014). In most developing countries, milk production depends on
smallholder farmers. It also contributes to securing family livelihoods, supporting food and nutrition
sovereignty, and maintaining food safety (FAO, 2021). According to Ronchi and Nardone (2003),
livestock systems in Mediterranean areas are far removed from an acceptable level of sustainability,
considering animal health, environmental impact, quality of products and profitability. Feed availability
Proceedings of HAICTA 2022, September 22–25, 2022, Athens, Greece
EMAIL: ndarcan@gmail.com (A. 1); sgoncu@cu.edu.tr (A. 2)
ORCID: 0000-0001-9888-1755 (A. 1); 0000-0002-0360-2723 (A. 2)
©️ 2022 Copyright for this paper by its authors.
Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)
266
was identified as one of the major constrains for small ruminant systems in the Mediterranean area. At
that time, the economic conditions were deplorable, so small farmers relied on producing milk and
selling it in the local market in their villages or sending it to city center with a third person, earning
some money to barter this milk for other food products (Non-cash exchange trading became very
popular, for example, exchanging cheese for hay. It also appeared that farmers sent their livestock daily
with the village herds to the pastures; the shepherd supervised them Sidawi et al., 2021). The aim of
this study is to determine sustainability and resilience of livestock production in rural areas of Eastern
Mediterranean part of Turkey.
2. Materials and Methods
The research study was conducted in Adana district in Eastern Mediterranean part of Turkey (Figure
1). The altitude and animal population have been taken into consideration while defining the villages
and districts. These data have been obtained from The Directorates of Agriculture in districts and
provinces and from the demarches. The animal farmers in villages of Kirazlıyurt and Kayarcık in
Tufanbeyli, Himmetli in Saimbeyli, Kökez and Dölekli in Aladag, Gildirli, Bolacalı and Güvenç in
Karaisalı were interviewed. The public survey has been carried especially on the animal farmers out of
the 10 % of the total house number in each village by Intentional Illustration Method. The numbers and
the frequency of the questionnaires administered were given in Table 1. As seen in Table 1, totally 118
questionnaires were carried on.
Table 1
Questionnaire numbers and distribution by the
villages and districts
Research Number of
Area questionnaires
Tufanbeyli 37
Kirazlıyurt 12
Kayarcık 25
Saimbeyli 17
Himmetli 17
Aladağ 26
Dölekli 12
Kökez 14
Karaisalı 27
Gildirli 9
Bolacalı 7
Güvenç 10
Total 100
Figure 1: Research Area
2.1. Mixed Method Approach
This study relied on the convergence model in the tripartite design of the mixed method approach.
The use of a mixed-method design allows questionnaires or surveys and interviews to be conducted
together (Al Sidavi et al., 2021; Creswell and Clark, 2006).
As seen in Figure 2, we used the experimental design of qualitative and quantitative surveys and
interviews as primary data with supporting data of small ruminant sector as indicated by Al Sidavi et
al. (2021). All data used in this survey were collected by face-to-face methods and farmers were selected
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and classified for their flock size. All participants’ primary income was sheep and goat farming. Small
holder farmers were selected for their awareness of environmental, social and economic problems of
sector and their region, as well. Before starting the interview, the brief information was given on aim
of the study with demarches of each village. The questionnaire was arranged interconnected with each
other. To that end, a survey of 36 questions and a Village overview survey consisting of 20 questions
were asked to owners of smallholders, as well as family members responsible for animal production
on; i) demographic information, ii) their economic aspects, iii) environmental issues, iv) social situation.
Data were transferred to an excel sheets as coded data, to show the descriptive statistical results for
each section of variables. SPSS Version 21 software was used for statistical analyses.
Supportive data Primary data
Figure 2: Experimental design of study (Al Sidavi et al., 2021; Creswell and Clark, 2006).
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Demographic Components
The big part of farmers was older than 30 years old and most of them were between 51-75 years old
(48%). Average proportion of the overall farm population and livestock holders over the age of 55 in
the area. Although the ageing of the farm population is evident across regions, the pace and levels of
ageing differ significantly between as well as within arm business. Rapid rural ageing is occurring in
livestock husbandry, which have seen significant increases in the proportion of farmers over 55 in less
than a decade. However, in a number of other agricultural activities, the farm demographic structure
has remained relatively static for the past two decades.
All farmers have reading and writing skill, 84.8% of the farmers were graduated primary school
while only 12% of them graduated from high school. Gender distribution was 45% of participants were
female and responsible whole procedures of animal farming.
Some general information according to villages were given Table 2. As it is shown that, the larger
villages are Kirazliyurt, Gildirli and Güvenç. Household number of Himmetli village is higher than the
others. Additionally, Kayarcik is the most crowded village in the survey area. Kirazliyurt, Kökez,
Gildirli, Güvenç, Bolacali and Kayarcik are the mountainous villages. Total surface areas of these
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villages contain forest, shrubs areas spread on the high mountains. Due to this fact the total surface area
of these villages are seems to be higher.
Table 2
Number of households, population and square measure of the survey area (TUIK, 2022)
Square Population
Name of Villages Number of Digits
measure (ha) (person)
Kirazliyurt 52000 120 870
Dölekli 200 120 900
Kökez 3300 210 1260
Gildirli 8500 80 250
Bolacali 6000 14 160
Kayarcik 6000 240 2000
Himmetli 2300 342 948
Güvenç 8000 100 600
Mosque, access roads, electricity and communication were available in all villages of the survey
area. School and clinic are not available in Bolacali while only clinic was not established in Gildirli
villages. River and springs are reported as water supply of some village such as Gildirli, Bolacali and
Kirazliyurt while the rest had mains water.
Only 9,4% of the breeders’ incomes were based on animal production. The others got income from
especially crop production; the secondary incomes were from animal production (27%). And main
incomes of the rest of them (18,1) were both animal and crop productions (18.1%). The reason of this
fact that the politic and socio-economical aspects of the area. The most of animal keepers give up animal
production due to input price especially feed, restricted grassland areas and, market problems (Table
3).
Table 3
Family's main source of income by age group
Family's main source of income
Vegetable Animal
Age groups production Breeding Both Other Total
0-30 % 0,6% 0,6% 0,1% 1,9% 3,2%
31-50 % 21,5% 7,5% 14,7% 37,6% 81,4%
51-75 % 4,8% 1,2% 3,3% 6,0% 15,4%
Total % 27,0% 9,4% 18,1% 45,6% 100,0%
3.2. Social Factors
Turkish culture and traditions play important role in rural society and directly influence small-
ruminant raising and marketing. Most of the farms were family managed. The member of whole family
took part in agricultural production; particularly women and teenagers were responsible for the almost
all agricultural activities of the farms. Women and teenagers were responsible the daily works of animal
production as cleaning, feeding, milking, mating, shearing, processing, nursing etc. Women were
working in goat activities 3,9 hours a day in average. Woman continued to work in livestock production
even if she was pregnant. Few males (12%) took part in livestock production. Livestock production
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was unique source of family livelihood in this area. They did not have any other alternatives because of
land structure, infrastructure and economic conditions. A main income of families was based on
especially goat and sheep productions. The big part of husbands of the women did not give permission
for women to go grassland with the flocks (98%). Instead of women the elder daughters and boys go to
grassland with herd. Flocks spent the days in higher zones between spring to winter (nomadic system).
Greatest part of farms (73%) was involved in housing for their livestock in winter. Small ruminant
production is the main agricultural activity in the research area. Hand milking was almost performed
by women and young girls (94.0%). Sometimes young boys are also help to their mother. While families
had not any boys or girls, men managed milking activity (4%). Only 71% of women dealt with cleaning
barn, pots and pans. In some families, all family members dealt with cleaning (12%) to barn. The 95%
of the women responsible of milk processing such as cheese, yoghurt etc. Women were manager status
in these inner activities while teenagers were in helper position. In other words, 88.4% of men were
major decision maker for whole financial issues. When women were widow or her husbands were old,
these decisions were given by women. Field studies were generally conducting by women as unpaid
family labour when small ruminant activities are performing for home consumption.
On the other hand, to learn women satisfaction from rural life questions of “are you satisfied from
your life” and “what are your expectations from your daughter’s life” were asked to women. All of the
women explained that they were not satisfied from their life condition.
3.3. Economical Factors
Due to its geographic and socio-economic situation, animal production is very popular in this area.
Mediterranean and Anatolian weather systems influence climate of the mountains, bringing hot
summers and cold winters into the area. High Platos of Taurus Mountains are the summer homes of all
villages and the summer grazing of animal herds. Livestock moves from lower to higher land (nomadic
system) where it spends the months from spring to winter.
It was obvious that, a big part of animals was fed by concentrate especially in wintertime, while they
were housed. Particularly barley, different types of bran, oilcake and hay were given to the goats in this
period of time. Big part of goats had seasonal breeding. Big part of goats and ewes had seasonal
breeding. Average 91 % of kids and lambs were weaned while they were 4 to 6 months old. Residual
milk was used in feeding together with grazing. Older female child or women were responsible for
herding in the grazing time. Flocks were grazed in natural forages from March to November. Feeding
was mainly based on natural grazing and agricultural products like straw, stubble and grains.
Table 4
Production systems of small-ruminant farming
Traits Frequency (%)
Free (open shed) 27
Housing Type Barn 67
Both 6
Meat 15
Main production Milk 77
Both 8
Concentrate feeding Yes 88
No 12
Daily milking time 1 time a day 70
2 times a day 30
1-2 months 9
Weaning time 2-4 months 53
4-6 months 38
Mating Time Seasonal 71
Aseasonal 29
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All animals grazed and utilized uncultivated parts of farms to transform wasteland into high value
commodities. In this way, goats add value to farm enterprises. Oak trees (Quercus) were used for
feedstuff. Besides olive or acorn tree branches were used as feedstuff in goat production. Sometimes
farmers cut the foliage just to feed their animals. This was the big problem in this area due to soil erosion
and deforestation. Milk technologies and other conservation methods have developed in the region due
to the climate changes. As an example, cheese is produced on daily conditions instead of traditional
methods. Only, in a few regions, cheese fermentation is still done by traditional methods. In the past,
products were dug into ground or into the snow in highlands where it’s impossible these days. Main
products of the farms were milk, cheese and yogurt. Farmers’ family consumed average 25% of the
whole milk. Families prefer to sell their milk as a cheese because of high income opportunity.
Approximately 89.30% of the feeders produce white cheese and 25.90% produce Tulum cheese. All
farmers produce “lor, çökelek and butter” additionally. Animals were milked twice a day by women or
female children. Additionally, they sold live animal when they need cash money. Live animals were
used or sold only when necessary to meet family needs, especially in case of emergencies, slaughter is
performed only for needs of the family.
Due to economic reasons (such as feed expenses and low price of some products in the market) the
farmers eventually could give up animal production. During the insufficient times of the grasslands,
animals are kept inside and meanwhile fed by concentrate feeds. Feeding in barn is based on mostly to
pulp (77, 1 %) and to straw (75, 4 %) but at the same time, concentrate feeds prepared by the factories
are also given highly (72 %). The farmers declared that in the past they used to take their animals to the
plains at the end of the winter because the vegetation awakened early, after the reduction of the sources
in the plains, they used to go to the backward highlands and pasture their animals.
Some herds which had been raised under semi-intensive systems had higher yield than the others.
These were big-scale farms and animals were fed with small amount of concentrate together with
grazing in summertime. Daily concentrate amount was depending on their physiological conditions. In
addition, new-borns were kept with their mother till they were 6 months old. This is another reason for
low yield. Mortality rate of lamb and kids was less than 15 %. Main dairy products of the farms were
milk, cheese and yogurt. Farmers’ family consumed average 25 % of the whole milk. Families prefer
to sell their milk as a cheese because of high income opportunity. Animal keepers produce white cheese,
Tulum cheese, lor, çökelek and butter.
Brucella (34%), Echtyma (54%), Foot and mouth disease (23%) were common diseases in this area.
Almost all farmers vaccinated their animals (74%). They reported that, if any disease occurred, either
they asked other farmers or bought medicine by themselves. Only 45 % of farmers called a veterinary
for their animals. Goats and Sheep were kept in breeding until they are 6 years old.
3.4. Environmental Aspects
The animal production systems and concept of climate change which are in mutual interaction with
each other has recently become a popular subject on the agenda, as Turkey is a party to certain
international protocols. The impacts of climate change on animal production could be analyzed directly
or indirectly. Within this framework, an animal’s interaction with environment stemming from its
physiological structure, as well as issues of the use of natural resource and waste management become
prominent. Another element of oppression on animal production is political and social and economic
sanctions which are aimed at decreasing the greenhouse gas emission. The total greenhouse gas
emission is closely related to the number of animals. In this regard, the use of small number of animals
in production with higher productivity will become an important strategy in the future in terms of animal
production. To that end, certain applications particularly aimed at improving the environment and
genotype will become prominent. An improvement in climate conditions is closely related to an
animal’s biological ceiling and the economic level. Accordingly, these two factors have an impact on
the level of productivity to be gained per animal. Therefore, measures to be taken to improve
environmental factors should be put into practice by taking current conditions into account, which is of
utmost importance in terms of profitability. In this regard, efforts aimed at improving the genetic
structure seem to be more feasible with regard to the type of animal to be studied and increasing the
productivity level per animal. The goats are remarkable as one of the species which will be utilized in
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animal production in the future due to their performance to benefit from the feed and ability to continue
their productivity under in all heavy conditions, gain advantage from feeding resources which aren’t
used by other animals and enjoy less methane emission in return. The biological environmental
conditions should be taken into consideration in terms of pollution to be caused by preferring
conventional methods in the use of natural resources in order to increase production in the unit area. In
this respect, issues of protecting the natural life and organic production become prominent.
Furthermore, the negative effects on biology deriving from the uncontrolled use of substances cause the
emergence of new diseases. The polluted environmental conditions are caused by the greenhouse gas,
which is released in animal production, as well as inability to perform the waste management in an
effective way. Thus, certain negative conditions emerge in production and human health (Koluman et
al., 2019)
The Mediterranean region is especially important with regard to understanding and practicing the
impact of climate due to its geographical characteristics and capacity to realize the agricultural and
animal productions in different altitudes. To that end, the current project evaluates the current situation
of stockbreeding activities which re conducted in different altitudes and qualities, as well as
advantageous and disadvantageous sides in terms of the climate change.
Livestock industry accounts about 25% of the agricultural GNP in the country. Although the share
of agriculture has relatively decreased in GNP and total exportation, agriculture still keeps its
importance due to the high rates of the active population in the sector and employment and its direct
relationship with nutrition. Recently, Turkey has become a net importer of livestock products and is
increasingly dependent on the world market. While productivity has risen over the last decade, the
Government’s protective measures have not resulted significant production gains (Table 5).
Table 5
Scenarios of Livestock Population and Livestock Production for next 60 years (Koluman and Gultekin,
2011)
Livestock Animals Milked Number of Livestock Milk Production Meat Production
(head) (head) Slaughtered (head) (ton) (ton)
Year
Goat Sheep Cattle Goat Sheep Cattle Goat Sheep Cattle Goat Sheep Cattle Goat Sheep Cattle
Present
Average 360337 336600 233853 175764 162726 121971 47156 369010 20562 13498 10380 226565 577 5203 2798
(1980-2008)
2070 321208 354007 217676 156678 171141 113534 42035 388092 19140 12032 10917 210892 514 5472 2604
2071 280147 328533 195522 136649 158826 101979 36661 360166 17192 10494 10131 189429 448 5079 2339
2072 321208 328533 195522 156678 158826 101979 42035 360166 17192 12032 10131 189429 514 5079 2339
2073 321208 354007 217676 156678 171141 113534 42035 388092 19140 12032 10917 210892 514 5472 2604
2074 321208 354007 217676 156678 171141 113534 42035 388092 19140 12032 10917 210892 514 5472 2604
2075 280147 328533 195522 136649 158826 101979 36661 360166 17192 10494 10131 189429 448 5079 2339
2076 280147 328533 195522 136649 158826 101979 36661 360166 17192 10494 10131 189429 448 5079 2339
2077 321208 354007 217676 156678 171141 113534 42035 388092 19140 12032 10917 210892 514 5472 2604
2078 280147 328533 195522 136649 158826 101979 36661 360166 17192 10494 10131 189429 448 5079 2339
2079 321208 354007 217676 156678 171141 113534 42035 388092 19140 12032 10917 210892 514 5472 2604
Estimated
Average 304783 341270 206599 148666 164983 107757 39885 374129 18166 11417 10524 200161 488 5276 2472
(2070-2079)
All the observations and calculations which have been made since 1980s concretely show that the
climate change exists. Even the most optimistic scenarios mention an increase by 1-1.5°C in the surface
area temperature in the last 100 years and emphasize that this increase might climb to 2.5-5°C in the
future. At this point, it should be emphasized that the climate change derives from the “human” factor,
rather than natural events. In this regard, the fact that the human factor has an impact on the natural
course should be highlighted. A great many conventional methods which are applied to meet the needs
of increasing population (food, clothing or subject, etc.) case natural resources to be polluted or
destroyed. The measures which are considered within this framework contradict to economic sanctions
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and thus they fail in practice. Therefore, if all the units came together to bring forward a planning which
is aimed at eliminating the main source of problem with concrete approaches, more realistic perceptions
on a solution would emerge (Koluman Darcan et al.,2019).
The “food” is naturally the only indispensable input of life for humanity. Accordingly, agricultural
activities involving food production and the nature-agriculture relationship have always been on the
agenda. As mentioned above, the intensive use of conventional inputs in the nature-agriculture cycle
and the oppression on natural resources have caused agriculture to be put under responsibility and
questioned in the process of climate change as well. The animal production and herbal production, as
well as the methods which are applied in the course of these productions, should be firstly considered
with regard to amounts of greenhouse gas emission.
The problems such as inability to come up with an alternative to stubble burning and similar
activities, the lack of an appropriate diet and use of high-quality feed in animal breeding and the
pollution which emerges during the production and animal transfer processes should be taken into
consideration in the process of climate change. At this point, conventional or traditional production
systems will become another issue to be discussed. The drought index of all plants was prepared through
a study which was conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (Koluman Darcan et al.,
2019).
The presentation of advantageous and disadvantageous sides of local gene resources in the animal
and herbal production within a regional projection would also provide a positive approach with regard
to the success of programs to be implemented in the long run. In this respect, a solution to the problem
with genetic and biotechnological approaches would be possible as well. But the local gene resources’
resistance and endurance to extreme conditions should be emphasized here. A methane emission in
which the live weight and productivity level of local animals are considered should be put forth with a
projection to be carried out. A pilot study which was performed on this issue is indicated below. The
calculations that we have made on the methane emission with origins of animal in Turkey with regard
to animal presence according to the annual methane emission data which is released in an enteric way
or through manures by the cattle, sheep and goats per animal in different ages and physiological
conditions in the IPCC (1997) data, as well as the agricultural counting results are indicated in the table
below (Görgülü et al, 2009).
Table 6
The annual methane emission of the cattle, sheep and goats in Turkey with origins of enteric
fermentation and manure (Görgülü et al., 2009)
Species Enteric, ton Manure, ton Total, ton Enteric,% Species, %
Cattle 675,394 108,457 783,850 86.16 76.53
Sheep 203,800 6,114 209,914 97.09 20.49
Goat 29,600 888 30,488 97.09 2.98
Total 908,794 115,459 1,024,252
The greenhouse gas in animal production is released particularly from animals (enteric
fermentation), for the manure and feed production and from the areas which are used as grassland. Thus
it’s of utmost importance to take certain measures with regard to stockbreeding, manure management,
storage and expansion and the systems which are used for feed production. There is little research on
these emissions in our country. Furthermore, regarding the feeding conditions and productivity levels
of our animals, it could be considered that the calculations which were made by us based on the IPCC
data might not be sound, because the ruminants in our country are fed with poorly digested, rough and
harvest-residue feeds at inadequate grasslands of low quality. In line with an assessment from this point
of view, it could be considered that the methane emission should be higher. But it’s known that the
methane emission is related to animals’ consumption of dry matters. It could be indicated that the
insufficient intake of feeds might limit the methane production and that the high methane production
which is caused by the lack of ration balances in our country could be relatively compensated by the
low intake of feeds, though not favoured (Görgülü et al., 2009).
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It’s estimated that the methane emission caused by ruminants in our country totals approximately 1
million tons and that more than 85% of this amount is of enteric origins. Furthermore, it’s considered
that 76% of total emission is caused by the cattle population. According to statistics from the State
Institute of Statistics’ (DSI) Branch Office of Environmental Statistics, the methane release caused by
enteric fermentation totalled 692,000 tons and that the emission caused by fertilizes totalled 37.6
thousand tons in 2000 (TUIK, 2022). As a conclusion remarks, it’s obviously clear that, climate has
significant effects on livestock production. Type of grasses, grassland potential, processing of products
and especially some Physiological aspects of farm animals has been affected adversely. The future
development of livestock farming systems in mountainous area of East Mediterranean part of Turkey
in term of intensive systems will largely depend on the application of modern management strategies,
especially for planning and monitoring functions together with political and financial adjustments.
Grazing should be planned with new regulation in the area. It has to be emphasized here that small
ruminant production is essential for this area. People living in this area do not have any other alternatives
for the sake of life. Moreover, educational studies should be started at utmost priority right away. People
should be acknowledged on new technologies. And lastly some heat-resistant farm Animal species and
genotypes should be adapted in the region. Additional feeding is provided all the yearlong to the cattle
where the sheep and goat consume the concentrate only when they are kept into the barn. Since the
fruitful land is used for cultivation, and since the forests are prohibited for small ruminants, farmers had
to start feeding with additional concentrate. Feeding in open land is mainly suitable between 09-17
hours for the cattle and between 03-21hours for small ruminants. In addition to open feeding lands, it’s
also possible for the animals to get fed by residues of crop after harvesting. This process didn’t change
during all those past years. However, it’s been learned by the interviews done by farmers in
mountainous areas that the goats still got fed in open area even in wintertime. In the past, due to heavy
snow falls, this was not possible. On the other hand, it’s been also observed that the height of the open
area feed (grass) is no longer tall when compared to past, as a result of less falling rain.
Australian pine (pinus nigra Arnold), Cedar (cedrus libani), crimson pine (Pinus butia), Oak
(Quercus sp L.) and Ocaliptus are common trees of forest area. When compared according to types,
goats are more selective in feed type, digesting faster and taking better advantage of low-quality feed.
They are also gaining the advantage of being more resistant to hot climate. Since sheep and goat
production has low production costs, it’s widely continued in regions, where other types of less resource
needing cultivation processes are done. When all these arguments are taken into consideration, it’s
obvious to understand why small ruminant production is more intensive in mountainous areas.
Hair goat (Kil), Akkaraman sheep and crossbred of Holstein Friesian x Native Black cattle were the
most common breeds in this area. 92 % of families had goat while 69 % families had sheep. Some
(76%) of the families had cattle. The average number of cattle was 3-4 heads per family. Besides,
poultry was also raised for domestic consumption.
Even if the government had forbidden, goat farmers did not give up goat rearing in forest area,
because of the mentioned factors in above.
Grazing in the field edges and harvest residues (stubble) is at the maximum level. Consequently, it
is seen that grazing in the residues after the harvesting of crop production is more common than grazing
in the natural areas. Grassland capacity and grassland areas decreased almost 67,8 % and 88.8 % during
to last 25 years, respectively. The reason of slumping in annual precipitation, cultivation in these areas,
early grazing and over-grazing and some regulations for grassland using. The pastures of the village
Gildirli was converted with the percentage of 71.53% by 13 families and 37 different plant species. The
dominant plant species was determined as Aegilops ovata L. The pastures of village Kökez was covered
with the percentage of 65.85% by 27 different species from 15 families. The dominant plant species
was determined as Bothriochloa ischaemum. The pastures of the village Kirazlıyurt was covered with
the percentage of 81.04 % by 28 different species from the 10 families. The species Lolium perenne
was determined as the dominant. Grazing starts in March and ends at the end of November or beginning
of the December. But in Aladag, due to snowing, grazing starts and ends earlier than the other regions.
About 87, 3 % of the farmers declared that there have been changes in climate in the areas on which
they live. Most of them stated that the temperature of the atmosphere increased (82,5 %) and some of
them stated that the temperature of the atmosphere decreased (2,9 %). However, the farmer’s response
to these questions by stating their opinions about how the changes in climates affected the animal and
crop production. It was determined that 77,1 % of the farmers no longer use the traditional ways and 27
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% of them use only caves and skins of the animals. Milk products technologies and other conservation
methods have developed in the region due to the climate changes. As an example, cheese is produced
on daily conditions instead of traditional methods. Only, in a few regions cheese fermentation is still
done by the traditional methods. In the past, products were dug into ground or into the snow in highlands
where it’s impossible these days.
Small ruminant owners indicated a seasonal change in oestrus, and it has moved from spring to
summer. Additionally, some of the farmers mentioned about the positive (1, 4 %) and negative (8, 6 %)
effects on the milk productivity occurring in the change of climate conditions.
4. Conclusions
This study represents an important step for better understanding the animal production systems in
East Mediterranean part of Turkey. It’s obviously clear that, productivity per animal should be
improved with new breed in this area. Moreover, grazing must be planned in this area. It has to be
emphasized here that small ruminant production is essential for this area. People living in this area do
not have any other alternatives for the sake of life. The future development of livestock farming systems
in mountainous area of East Mediterranean part of Turkey in term of intensive systems will largely
depend on the application of modern management strategies, especially for planning and monitoring
functions together with political and financial adjustments. Moreover, educational studies should be
started at utmost priority right away. People should be acknowledged on new technologies. The
economic significance of livestock and research into their uniqueness should increasingly be a priority
in this area for sustainability of rural development.
5. Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Cukurova University Scientific Research Project Unit Project no: FYL-
2022-15210.
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