With the increasing importance of security in digital transformation for companies, the challenge arises to ensure data protection and reliable user authentication, especially in the rapid development of web applications. Many users utilize identical credentials for login, creating significant risks to their security. This article explores the potential of utilizing blockchain technology in the context of Single Sign-On (SSO) systems. Single Sign-On provides users with the ability to authenticate only once and gain access to various digital resources. The problem statement encompasses current trends in security and access management, such as the risk of data compromise and inefficient information exchange between SSO systems. An integral component of the article involves the analysis of recent research and publications, focusing on expanding the applications of blockchain technology, developing decentralized identifiers, and integrating consensus technologies. The primary objective of the research is the development and implementation of technological solutions aimed at enhancing the security, resilience, and efficiency of SSO systems in the digital environment. Additionally, key research is examined, emphasizing the significance of blockchain utilization and innovations in user identification and authentication.
Over the last decades, technological progress
has led to the expansion of the cyber world and
the increase in volumes of digital interaction. In
this context, the SSO system has become a
crucial element in ensuring the efficiency and
security of user authentication. However, the
constant growth in the volume of digital and
inperson services leads to the growth of access
management and information protection tasks
complexity [
One innovative technology that has the potential to cover many of these challenges is blockchain. Considering the concept of applying blockchain in the scope of a possible SSO technology, we are opening a wide field of possibilities that unites security, decentralization, and smooth user experience.
In this paper, we explore the possibilities of improvements that blockchain technology can provide to authentication security, ensure decentralized access control, protect user data, and cover other aspects of SSO. Also, we will examine the impact of this technological symbiosis on the security of Internet interaction and the role it can play in the further development of the digital world.
By developing our understanding of the
interaction between the blockchain and SSO,
we discover how this integration can define
new standards of security and efficiency in
today’s digital landscape [
becoming vital in the context of the growing demand for digital services and web resources.
However, existing authentication and access management methods and tools do not always meet the security and trust challenges that emerging in a digital environment. Issues such as the risk of identity compromise, centralized use of zero-knowledge proofs and other management, and data sharing between methods that allow authentication without different SSO systems remain relevant. transmitting the information itself.
Actual aspects of the problem: The decentralized nature of blockchain 1. Insufficient security: existing allows the creation of immutable event logs authentication methods may be vulnerable that are easy to verify, enabling audits and to various types of cyber-attacks, which establishing trust in user behavior. Moreover, endangers the confidentiality and integrity the efficient data exchange mechanism of user information. between SSO systems can be established by 2. Centralized systems: Centralized access using the blockchain as an intermediate control systems can become a point of platform for the secure and efficient exchange vulnerability and contribute to the risks of of authentication information between unauthorized access or security breaches. different SSO systems, which will ensure 3. Inefficient data exchange: SSO seamless authentication and access implementation does not always ensure management [7]. efficient exchange of authorization The main idea is that blockchain can be used information between different systems, for the creation of secure, decentralized, and which can lead to delays and incorrect transparent identification and access systems access management. that increase trust and protect users’ data.
Considering the mentioned problems, the The purpose of the article. The purpose of necessity of the development and this paper is to thoroughly research and implementation of new technological solutions analyze the possibilities of blockchain usage in becomes obvious. In particular, the integration the scope of SSO technology to overcome the of blockchain technology into the field of SSO indicated problems and create a more secure can be a promising way of the security, and efficient environment for Internet users. stability, and authentication improvements in The main objectives of the article are: the digital space. • The overview of blockchain technology, its
Recent research and publications basic principles, and benefits of blockchain analysis. The combination of SSO and technology in the context of security and blockchain technology can create an effective reliability. and secure solution for access management • The analysis of the SSO technology: and personal data protection. Let’s consider analysis of the current state of the SSO how these two technologies can work together technology, its advantages, and limitations, to improve security and user experience. particularly from a security perspective.
Firstly, decentralized identity. The • The identification of the problems related
blockchain can provide the basis for creating to the current methods of authentication
decentralized identities that users can control. and access control on the Internet, in
Each user can have a unique digital ID by particular from the point of view of
storing it in a distributed blockchain ledger. security, convenience, and reliability.
Also, an important aspect is the security of • The role of blockchain in the SSO: explores
credentials—the storage of identification data the possibilities of using blockchain
in the blockchain can increase the security of technology to improve the SSO process,
this data [
Secondly, decentralization of access control. outlined, including technical and functional The blockchain can help in the implementation aspects. of decentralized access control systems, where each node (user) has significant influence over setting access rights. This helps to reduce the risk of centralized attacks and increases the transparency of the whole system. The usage of blockchain for identification can include the
SSO is a mechanism that allows users to sign into multiple applications, services, or websites while using a single set of credentials. This approach is convenient for users because there is no necessity to remember several different sets of credentials or authenticate multiple times. While users have one strong password instead of many, they are less likely to choose a weak password over a strong one or use the same password for different services, which is considered a common cause of cyberattacks [8].
The next important benefit is improved user control. SSO systems enable IT administrators to better control access to applications and services. They can easily check and manage user rights, which significantly reduces the risk of unauthorized access. This is especially important in organizations where access to confidential information is strictly regulated.
Moreover, the usage of SSO provides efficient login processes. The SSO provides fast and seamless access to various applications and services. This is especially important in industries such as healthcare or law enforcement, where quick access to information can be critical. Instead of spending time entering passwords for each service, users can start working immediately.
Finally, the key benefit of SSO is improved security. Because users need to remember fewer passwords, they tend to choose more complex and secure passwords. In addition, since there is only one entry point, it is easier to protect against cyber-attacks. Companies can use additional security measures, such as multi-factor authentication, making the system even more secure [9].
However, SSO, or the single sign-on system, despite its advantages, has certain drawbacks that are important to consider when implementing and using it.
One of the key disadvantages is that due to its nature, SSO creates a single point of failure. If the SSO provider goes down for some reason or experiences technical problems, it may lead to loss of access to all connected applications and services. This is a critical risk, especially for organizations that depend on continuous access to their applications.
Another drawback is limited support for
some applications. Not all applications and
services support SSO, which may encourage
users to have separate accounts for those
applications. This partially removes the
advantage of single sign-on because users still
need to remember several logins and
passwords [
One more problem is related to the risks of shared computer usage. In environments where computers are shared, such as libraries or educational institutions, there is a risk of unintentional access to someone else’s account unless the user is logged out.
In addition, there is a serious risk of credentials being stolen in case of data leakage. If an SSO account has been compromised, attackers gain potential access to all associated services and applications. This can lead to a large-scale leak of confidential information.
Another potential drawback is the complexity of the integration of SSO with existing security systems in some organizations. Implementing SSO can require significant technical effort to integrate with different systems and platforms, especially in large or complex IT infrastructures.
All in all, SSO can limit the ability to customize security policies for individual applications. In some cases, the standardization of security settings through SSO may not consider the unique requirements of certain applications, which may pose a risk to data and information security.
The integration of blockchain technology into the SSO system offers unique solutions to existing shortcomings and provides new functionality.
centralized yet distributed ledger that simplifies the process of managing accounts.
This reduces the risks associated with a single
point of failure since the data is now
distributed and does not depend on a single
server or provider [
The distribution of data in the blockchain also reduces its vulnerability to attacks.
Attacking a system where information is stored network nodes, making possible attacks in many nodes at the same time is much more more difficult. difficult than a centralized system with a single • Efficiency—the authentication process is entry point. This is especially important given carried out once and data about it is the risks of compromising SSO accounts, which recorded in the blockchain, avoiding recan give access to a wide range of services and entering credentials for each resource. applications. This approach can find its application in
Also, usage of the blockchain greatly various industries, from access control in improves the scalability of SSO systems. Due to corporate systems to secure login to online its distributed nature, blockchain can easily services. handle large numbers of users and services SSO authentication, as described previously, without the need to centralize data and request is the process of logging into a network once processing. and then gaining access to all other systems on
In addition, the blockchain provides a high the same network using the same credentials. level of transparency and traceability. Every A user can log in once and access all systems transaction, including changes to access or associated with their account. SSO credentials, is recorded and auditable. This authentication is used for cloud applications, adds an element of accountability and helps web applications, mobile applications, and prevent unauthorized access. more. Additionally, companies can create a
Decreased dependence on service providers customized login environment with login is another important advantage. Using policies, access controls, and access auditing blockchain can reduce the need for external using SSO.
SSO providers, giving organizations more In case of the blockchain usage in SSO, the control over their identity and access systems. users’ credentials are stored in a decentralized
Thus, the application of blockchain in SSO ledger, which means that the data is stored on provides new opportunities for improving the a network of computers (nodes) rather than on security, efficiency, and reliability of access a single server. This decentralized data storage management systems, while solving several makes information more secure and less existing problems associated with traditional vulnerable to cyber-attacks. methods of identity management. If a hacker tries to break into a network, he
In the context of SSO technology, blockchain will have to break into every single computer can help create a secure and efficient in the network, which is much more difficult authentication mechanism. Each node of the than breaking into a single computer. The blockchain network will store and maintain system owner can also decide whether to user authentication information. This allows change access rights to user data. the usage of a secure registration and authentication process, as well as managing 2.3. Protecting Personal Data in access to various resources [11]. Information Government with Blockchain and stored in the blockchain can be reliably SSO protected from interference or alteration, providing a high level of security for users’ The use of SSO and blockchain technology to data. protect personal data in government can bring
In a blockchain-based SSO system, each user several significant benefits, such as increased can have a unique identifier that is stored in a security, decentralization, auditing, and distributed blockchain database. When a user efficiency. logs in to any of the resources, a request is The blockchain allows personal data to be made to the blockchain to validate the stored and processed in an encrypted and secure authentication data. environment. The data can be distributed across This approach has several advantages: the network in a secure format, making it less • Data security—blockchain uses vulnerable to potential cyberattacks. Blockchain cryptographic methods to ensure can serve as the basis for creating a decentralized security, making it resistant to hacking. access control system for public services. Each • Decentralization—saving authentication user can have a unique identifier and control information is distributed among their permissions, reducing the risk of centralized vulnerability points.
An important step is the introduction of ZeroKnowledge Proof. Using the “Zero-Knowledge Proof” or other cryptographic methods allows you to prove authenticity without transmitting the information itself. This can be useful for identity verification without details disclosure.
Blockchain technology provides the possibility of the creation of event logs that are immutable and auditable. This assists in managing, tracing, and identifying anyone who accessed personal data, when, and how.
Moreover, the blockchain can solve the problem of data duplication in different government systems. A distributed database can provide a single and up-to-date set of data.
SSO and the blockchain can facilitate effective data recovery after possible disasters or cyberattacks. The blockchain can provide data backup and recovery while preserving integrity. The usage of single sign-on and blockchain technologies can facilitate the integration and exchange of data between different government services, simplifying the processes of processing and sharing information.
It is important to take into account the challenges of regulation, privacy, and the introduction of new technologies in public administration. The specific legal environment and security standards that apply to public institutions should also be taken into account. Identity and electronic document management. The use of Risk of personal information leakage. Attackers can use blockchain can simplify the identification and management of identifiers for unauthorized access or data leakage. Dependence electronic documents. Citizens can have digital identifiers that on technical means. Failure or malfunction of SSO or blockchain prove their identity, which can be used in various government hardware can lead to access problems. systems and services.
Ensuring privacy. It’s important to consider privacy practices in Lack of absolute anonymization. Not all data anonymization the context of blockchain and SSO. Techniques such as methods can guarantee absolute privacy and anonymity. anonymizing data, using private blockchain solutions, or Controversial private blockchain, the use of a private blockchain encryption can help keep personal information confidential. may raise questions about its true independence and privacy. Standardization and the legal environment. It is important to Slow standard-setting process. The process of defining and consider the standards and legal environment surrounding the adopting standards can be lengthy and protracted. Outdated use of blockchain technology in public institutions. Defining standards and changes in the technological environment can standards for data processing, storage, and exchange can help to make established standards obsolete, requiring constant ensure that systems are secure and interoperable. updating.
Integration with existing systems. When implementing SSO and Integration with existing systems can be complex and require blockchain, it is important to consider the possibility of significant resources and time. The transition to new integration with existing government information systems. technologies may be accompanied by temporary disruptions Ensuring compatibility and ease of implementation can help that may affect government services. avoid difficulties in transitioning to new technologies.
Benefits for citizens. It is important to emphasize the benefits Some citizens may find it difficult to use new technologies or for citizens in using these technologies. Simplifying access to may not see the benefits of using them. Citizens may express government services, and increasing security and control over concerns about security and privacy in the context of SSO and their data can make these technologies more acceptable to the blockchain. general public.
Efficient resource management. The use of blockchain technology in government can help to manage resources efficiently and avoid unnecessary duplication and data loss.
The costs of implementing and maintaining technology can be significant and require significant investment. Government staff may require additional time and training to adopt new technologies.
Some employees may be resistant or disapproving of the need to learn and use new technologies. Low levels of information literacy among citizens may make it difficult to adopt new technologies.
Training and awareness. Implementation of new technologies requires training and awareness raising of staff on data security and the benefits of using SSO and blockchain technologies.
technologies in government can help address security, efficiency, and transparency issues in the processing and storage of citizens’ data. However, it is important to maintain a balance between security and convenience to ensure successful implementation and adoption of the technologies.
The introduction of SSO and blockchain
technology in the public sector can face several
issues and challenges that should be
considered during the design and
implementation of the system. Government
agencies often use different information
systems and platforms [
Also, ensuring a high level of data security and confidentiality is a critical task for government agencies. It is important to examine and address possible risks associated with the storage and processing of sensitive information. The introduction of new technologies requires training and adaptation of staff. Public services may face challenges in terms of lack of awareness and resistance to change among staff.
An important issue is that changes in existing legislation and the regulatory environment may be necessary to comply with and legally use new technologies. This may require time and effort to amend legislation. Legislative issues related to the introduction of SSO and blockchain technology in public government may include several aspects related to the legal environment and regulation.
It is important to determine whether there are necessary legislative changes or support for the introduction of new technologies. This may include developing new laws or adapting existing ones to take into account the specifics of SSO and blockchain technologies. Determining the responsibility of the parties in case of possible data security incidents or breaches. This includes defining the responsibilities of government agencies, technology providers, and possibly even citizens in the case of problems [13].
Many jurisdictions have strict laws and regulations governing the privacy and protection of personal data. While introducing new technologies, it is important to determine if they are consistent with these requirements and how to ensure compliance. Determine the status of electronic documents and digital identifiers used in the system. This may include the legalization of electronic signatures and other issues related to the legal force of electronic documents.
In turn, it is important to consider the issue of public trust in new technologies and security measures. Active communication with the public and taking their views into account can be key to successful implementation. Legislation should define the rights and obligations of users in the context of SSO and blockchain technologies. This may include issues of authorization, access management, and retention of rights. The introduction of the blockchain may require transparency and openness in addressing issues of data legitimacy and integration. Legislation may define rules for auditing and verifying transactions.
While implementing new technologies, the huge number of users and processing of large amounts of data can create challenges in scaling the infrastructure and ensuring the system’s resilience. The use of blockchain to create virtual identifiers may raise issues related to the fairness, validity, and reliability of such identifiers [14].
Taking these challenges into account and actively managing them can help create a successful and effective SSO and blockchain system in a state government. In addition, it is important to engage all stakeholders and develop strategies to address specific challenges that may arise when implementing new technologies.
The use of blockchain for creating and storing credentials can offer several advantages. First and foremost, the use of blockchain technology will allow data to be stored immutably throughout its existence. That is, once such data is created and stored in the blockchain, it will not be possible to unauthorizedly change or delete it. The next advantage is decentralization, which will allow different network nodes to participate not only in creating or verifying such data but also in providing access to such records in the event of a failure of one or more network nodes [15].
Another important characteristic is the use of cryptographic mechanisms that allow such data to be used for the digital signing of documents or user identification. To do this, when creating credentials, it is enough to add the user’s digital signature to them, which will allow them to be used in the future.
At the moment, various systems make it possible to create such credentials in the field of education [16], and their actual use prompts us to look for new ways to use these types of credentials, in particular, to explore the possibility of their use in SSO systems.
Activity logging systems are an integral part of any system, including access control systems, which include SSO. Analyzing user actions allows the detection of unauthorized activities by finding anomalies in the users’ behavior [17], atypical actions, unusual locations from which were obtained, etc., or by investigating attack vectors [18]. This system can be of great interest to an attacker. The CAPEC-161 family of attacks: Infrastructure Manipulation [19] are aimed at changing the system’s infrastructure, in particular the CAPEC-268: Audit Log Manipulation [20] attack is aimed at altering the user action logs in the system. The idea of such an attack is that an attacker changes entries in the activity register to hide unauthorized actions in the system. There are several types of such manipulations: deleting logs, modifying logs, saving fake logs, and suppressing logging.
In this case, the use of blockchain technology will protect the logging system, the concept of which is depicted in Fig. 1, from unauthorized changes by using the very nature of the technology. Such a property as data immutability will make it possible to ensure that no stored data has been deleted, modified, or unauthorizedly added to previously stored records, since any change in the existing chain of blocks will be easily detected by changes in the block hash, which is formed based on the data stored in it, and the hash value itself is stored in the next block.
Although the use of this approach is quite attractive due to its protection against unauthorized changes, one should take into account the limitations of blockchain technology. For example, the size of the blockchain itself may become a limitation, which will grow with the number of records, since all data will be stored in the blockchain. This will lead to a constant increase in the load on the system and a decrease in performance over the time of existence of such a blockchain, since its size may negatively affect performance, in particular, the time to reach consensus in the network. In addition, the size of the blockchain itself will have a positive impact on the system’s resistance to attacks, as making unauthorized changes will require the use of significant resources, making the attack nonprofitable for the attacker.
means that a user’s credentials and digital identifier are not directly linked, but can be linked using various methods and tools. Accordingly, there are various blockchain projects [21] that use more sophisticated cryptographic methods and tools to ensure greater user privacy.
However, in the scope of developing an SSO system, this property of the technology can become one of the tools for building a logging system. Analyzing user activity in the activity log and detecting abnormal activity may indicate the presence of unauthorized actions. Although the user’s identity cannot be established based on the user’s crypto address alone, a separate database with user credentials will allow to identify the person who may be the intruder. In this case, pseudoanonymity means that all actions are logged using only the user’s crypto address, but there is a separate secure blockchain containing the user’s credentials, which allows to identification of the user if necessary. This method of applying such a property is ambiguous since it does not guarantee complete anonymity of system users and provides the ability to identify the user, but this is a necessary measure in the case of blockchain-based SSO, as it will create the possibility for attackers inside the system that their identity will be disclosed. types of blockchain will lead to a decrease in the level of decentralization of the system, as this approach will create users with special rights [23].
of a combination of different types of Access separation is one of the key functional blockchain to enable the creation of a characteristics of any access control system blockchain-based SSO system. The key element and SSO in particular. In traditional systems, is the combination of two types of blockchain, access control takes place on the side of the one of which will be used to store data about system that stores the separation rules and is users and the other to store logs of their actions responsible for their enforcement. When using in the system to monitor activity in such a the blockchain, the function of storing system. We believe, that the best choice of permissions can be transferred to the system blockchain type to store user data is a hybrid users themselves, while the execution of access blockchain. Since it will make it possible to control rules and the issuance of new store user data in a secure place, inaccessible permissions can be left on the system side [22]. from the outside, and at the same time make it
The following technologies can be used to possible to obtain an anonymized user ID with ensure this approach: NFT, Smart contracts, data on their access rights for access rights and the use of different types of blockchains— validation. open, closed, hybrid, etc. The type of blockchain used to store logs
Since NFT is a non-fungible token, unlike will be public, as it will allow anyone to check widely known cryptocurrencies, and can network activity and find anomalies that may contain almost any information that is written indicate intrusion into the network. to it, its use in the context of SSO systems can The system algorithm will look like this: play the role of permissions to access certain 1. The credentials provider creates the internal services, the right to read or write user’s blockchain credentials and stores information in systems, etc. The existence of them in the hybrid blockchain, and smart contracts, i.e. self-executing code in the transmits them to the user of the system. blockchain network, will allow the system to 2. If it is necessary to grant special rights, automatically determine the role of the user the provider creates an NFT with data on based on the tokens he or she has and provide the user’s special rights and transfers it access to restricted information. The to the user. possibility to store information with different 3. To log in to the system, the user sends an levels of access in the blockchain network can access request to the access controller, be achieved precisely through the use of which acts as an SSO gateway. different types of blockchain networks. For 4. The access controller requests the example, public information can be stored on a adapter to the hybrid blockchain to public blockchain, which does not require any verify user rights. special access tokens (NFTs), restricted 5. In case of successful validation, the user information can be stored on a private gains access to the system, and a blockchain, the rules for access to which can be corresponding entry is made in the determined by the organization to which it public log blockchain. In case of belongs and, for example, require that the user unsuccessful validation, the user is not already owns a certain type of access token, or granted access, and a corresponding a hybrid blockchain can be used, which entry is made in the log blockchain. combines the access control capabilities of a When a user accesses internal systems, the private blockchain with the ability to provide corresponding records are entered into the log open access to public information. However, it blockchain. should be considered, that the use of different
This approach allows to separation of the processing of user data and the action log, which reduces the load on the system and speeds up the login process since the creation of new users will not overlap with the entry creation in the action log. Also, the use of the credentials adapter will allow to transfer of only information about the identifier and access rights to the access controller, and all personal data will remain within the hybrid blockchain network.
may be of interest for further research and developing ways to implement such a system. Special attention will be required to find solutions to the disadvantages of such a system.
One of the key disadvantages of such a system is the increasing load on the system as the network grows, as the decrease in performance will directly affect the ability to use such a system in real projects, as the long time for a user to log in and record their actions in logs can become an insurmountable obstacle to the implementation of such a system. One possible way to overcome the problem is to use such an SSO system only for critical objects of the overall system, where it is necessary to ensure the highest level of control over user actions. Another way would be to use XRPL [24, 25] technology, which allows for fast processing of requests and is a precursor to blockchain technology which uses a distributed ledger system. However, the use of this technology can also lead to the need to find niche specialists, develop a mechanism for its harmonization with the network, etc.
Another disadvantage of the system is the need to create users with special rights and the use of blockchain types that reduce the level of decentralization. However, these are disadvantages without which the development of this system will be impossible since their very existence makes it possible to delimit access and store credentials in a secure place.
The next challenge is creating a mechanism for removing special rights from users. This can be done by providing access to resources through burning NFT tokens after a single access to resources or creating tokens with a limited lifespan. However, this approach will create an increased load on the network, as it will generate additional transactions when granting and redeeming such tokens from the user.
Also, the relatively low number of blockchain specialists may lead to the involvement of insufficiently qualified personnel, which may lead to problems in the system architecture, additional vulnerabilities, etc.
Another challenge is the possible difficulty in implementing the development of multifactor authentication. This attention should be paid, as the theft of a user’s crypto wallet may lead to free entry into the network for intruders, since in this approach the very existence of a crypto wallet with credentials is an authentication factor, and the availability of additional mechanisms to confirm the user’s authenticity is a necessity to protect against such situations.
In general, when using blockchain technology in SSO systems, it should be considered as a possible addition to the existing system, not as an alternative to traditional systems. In particular, the availability of a blockchain version of the event log can be a secure alternative to conventional access logs, as such a log will be protected from unauthorized tampering with log entries, making it impossible to hide abnormal activities in the network, which will make it easier to identify the intruder. Or using the blockchain as a repository of user credentials, which can simplify the exchange between different institutions and eliminate the need for multiple duplications of user data, make changes to them in one place, and allow users to control these changes and see the party that changed them. The use of blockchain technology at this stage of its development can be seen as an experimental addition to existing systems and as a basis for further research on this topic.
The study emphasizes that the blockchain, due [2] to its decentralized nature, can solve the problems associated with centralized SSO authentication systems. This avoids one central point of vulnerability and contributes to a higher level of user data protection.
The main aspect of the study is to thoroughly examine and compare the benefits of blockchain and traditional SSO methods. The results show that blockchain not only provides [3] a high level of security but also helps to avoid problems such as concurrent access and identity conflicts.
A detailed review of technical aspects of the blockchain-based SSO implementation was provided, including the development of a distributed blockchain-based SSO concept, which will ensure the possibility of storing [4] identity and access control information. This can greatly improve the process of authentication and user data management.
The results of the analysis of SSO technology show that, despite its advantages in simplifying access, there are security and privacy issues. The use of blockchain can help solve these issues by providing a secure and reliable authentication mechanism.
Additionally, it is important to note that blockchain can be a fundamental element in solving the problems of identity conflicts that often arise in traditional SSO systems. Its ability to provide a single and reliable record of user information can help create a single point of authentication without the risk of a security breach.
In the context of developing the concept, it is important to consider cooperation with key players in the blockchain and identity space to ensure standardization and interoperability between different platforms and services.
In general, the introduction of blockchain into SSO technology can open up new opportunities for creating a safe, reliable, and innovative online environment.
doi: 10.24251/hicss.2022.730. [25] D. Perez, J. Xu, B. Livshits, Revisiting Transactional Statistics of Highscalability Blockchains, IMC ’20: ACM Internet Measurement Conference (2020). doi: 10.1145/3419394. 3423628.