This paper explores the impact of gamified campaigns within the AirBreak project on promoting sustainable urban mobility. Designed to induce lasting behavior change, the campaigns target diverse scenarios, including home-to-work, home-to-school, and leisure travel. The study assesses the overall effectiveness of these campaigns, analyzing changes in individual mobility choices and their contribution on reducing CO2 emissions. Additionally, the paper delves into the motivational aspects of the campaigns, identifying features that influenced participants towards sustainable mobility. Understanding these motivational factors provides insights into key elements driving positive behavioral changes. Moreover, the research investigates user characteristics influencing consistent engagement in sustainable mobility choices. This analysis enhances our understanding of the factors shaping participants' inclination towards adopting and sustaining eco-friendly travel practices. Grounded in theoretical foundations, the study details data collection and analysis methods, presenting findings that offer valuable perspectives for future interventions and policy considerations in the context of gamified sustainable transportation campaigns.
Mobility assumes a crucial role in contemporary urban
settings, shaping the way citizens engage with the city,
access essential services, and participate in urban life.
The effectiveness and organization of mobility, as
highlighted by Vesco et al. [1], significantly influence
citizens’ experiences within the city. In this dynamic
context, cities grapple with a formidable challenge.
Administrators must not only ensure citizens’ right to
mobility and seamless access to local services, but also
strive to minimize the economic, social, and
environmental costs associated with the mobility
system. Addressing this challenge necessitates a
comprehensive approach that efficiently leverages
existing mobility resources while integrating and
promoting new or emerging mobility services,
fostering an integrated, efficient, and sustainable
mobility ecosystem [2]. In pursuit of this objective,
cities are strategically planning and implementing
interventions across infrastructures, services, and
mobility policies. While these elements are pivotal in
advancing sustainability and integration in mobility, it
is crucial to recognize the equally significant
sociotechnical dimension of user acceptance and adoption
[
In many instances, citizens’ everyday mobility
decisions are shaped by ingrained habits and
influenced by inaccurate or outdated beliefs [
In recent years, substantial efforts have focused on
utilizing interactive technologies to enhance citizen
awareness, promote active participation, and induce
behavior change toward a more sustainable lifestyle.
Gamification, identified as a persuasive technology
with significant potential [
The development of urban mobility policies has
become crucial for governments and stakeholders
aiming to support sustainability goals [
The two campaigns, incorporated within the AIRBREAK project2, have been designed and implemented across various contexts such as commuting between home and work, home-to-school travel, leisure activities, and free time mobility. The aim of this initiative is not only to alter users’ mobility patterns during the campaign but also to instill a lasting behavior change.
In this paper, we present an exhaustive description of the AIR-BREAK project and the implemented campaigns (Section 2). In Section 3, we present the theory and hypotheses that guide this paper. In Section 4, we introduce the methods used for the questionnaire creation and evaluation, data collection, and statistical analysis. Then, in Sections 5 and 6, we report and discuss the findings after the analysis. We conclude the paper with the conclusions and future works related to the AIR-BREAK project in Section 7.
The AIR-BREAK project is centered on the core objective of informing and heightening citizens’ awareness about sustainable mobility services, with the goal of fostering the adoption of eco-friendly travel habits. In outlining the project’s scope, various campaigns have been designed to address four key objectives. Firstly, the project endeavors to actively engage citizens, making them aware of both existing and newly introduced mobility resources. Simultaneously, efforts are directed towards elevating their awareness regarding the significant impact their daily mobility choices can have. The ultimate ambition is to contribute to the establishment of a new cultural norm for urban and rural mobility within the city community. Building on this foundation, AIR-BREAK seeks to instigate a voluntary travel behavior change. This is achieved through a strategic blend of virtual (game-based) and tangible incentives, leveraging personalized cooperative and competitive game mechanics. The goal is to encourage and sustain the adoption of more sustainable mobility habits among the populace. Moreover, AIR-BREAK focuses on community building. By actively involving citizens in AIR-BREAK initiatives and events, the project aims to foster the creation of a local community of users. Tailored behavioral change programs are deployed to reach diverse user segments, including primary, secondary, and high school students, as well as employees. The intention is to create synergies with other AIR-BREAK initiatives, promoting a collaborative and supportive environment. Finally, AIR-BREAK emphasizes the importance of producing measurable outcomes. This entails evaluating the project’s impact in terms of engagement, retention, increased awareness, and behavioral change. The insights gained from these measurable outcomes will be instrumental in refining and optimizing subsequent phases of the AIR-BREAK project, ensuring continuous improvement based on real-world experiences.
Within the framework of the AIR-BREAK project,
we have conceptualized and executed diverse
sustainable mobility campaigns focusing on distinct
mobility contexts, including home-to-work mobility,
home-to-school mobility, leisure, and free time mobility.
These initiatives cater to a range of end-user groups,
encompassing the general public, students, and
employees. The subsequent section provides a concise
overview of each of these planned actions. AIR-BREAK
mobility campaigns have been implemented through
the Play&Go platform that supports the definition and
management of different types of sustainable mobility
campaigns, customizable with respect to mobility
objectives and target users. The customization of
campaigns can concern: the means of mobility to be
promoted, the travel validation criteria, the
competitive/cooperative game elements
implemented, and the real incentives provided by the
campaign [
The Urban Mobility Campaign (UMC) is an initiative
encouraging citizens to actively embrace sustainable
transportation through gamification. Registration and
utilization of the Play&Go app for tracking eco-friendly
trips are essential components of engagement. Central
to the gaming experience in the UMC are the
EcoLeaves Points. These points serve to keep the user
motivated [
A thoughtful design choice involves the
introduction of daily limits on tracked kilometers and
trips to prevent disproportionate and unnecessary use
of transportation means. This limitation ensures a
more equitable gaming experience for all participants,
narrowing the performance gap between top players
and others actively engaged in the campaign.
Furthermore, constraints tied to the validity of tracked
trips based on location — valid only if the origin or
destination falls within the specific territory — add an
additional layer of relevance and authenticity to the
gameplay. Beyond the core mechanics, players have
opportunities to earn bonus Eco-Leaves points. These
incentives include inviting friends to join the game,
achieving success in weekly challenges, and obtaining
special badges that come with associated Eco-Leaves
bonuses. Participants can meticulously monitor their
mobility history and achievements through
personalized profiles, which showcase a diverse array
of badges symbolizing accomplishments. These badges
range from achieving specific Eco-Leaves milestones
to showcasing preferences in transportation modes,
reinforcing the exploration of various mobility
alternatives [
Distinguishing itself from a one-size-fits-all
approach, the UMC thrives on its highly personalized
weekly challenges. This personalization is achieved
through a Recommendation System, ensuring that
challenges are not only motivating but also realistic,
avoiding frustration stemming from unattainable
targets [
A pivotal aspect of the UMC is the continuous evaluation of player performance through game levels. Players progress through different levels such as Green Lover, Green Warrior, and Green Guru based on the total points they accumulate. Importantly, this system ensures that certain features of the game become available to players upon reaching specific levels, adding an element of progression and achievement to the gaming experience. The gameplay adopts a weekly structure, fostering a sense of regularity and allowing for the creation of weekly leaderboards. These leaderboards, reflecting performance within a specific time-frame, contribute to the excitement of weekly prizes offered by local sponsors. Importantly, this structure provides newcomers with a fair opportunity to compete with seasoned players, leveling the playing field and maintaining a vibrant gaming community. To incentivize sustained participation, the UMC concludes with final prizes awarded to top players on the global leaderboard. Both weekly and final prizes are generously offered by local associations and sponsors, enhancing the overall appeal of the campaign.
The High School Challenge (HSC) is a competition designed for high school classes, with the goal of encouraging sustainable and active commuting from home to school. Participants utilize the Play&Go application to track their eco-friendly journeys. Each student not only competes individually in the UMC but also contributes to their class’s overall standing in the inter-school competition. Attractive prizes await the most active and sustainable classes. The class registration process involves the following steps, facilitated by a designated reference teacher: 1. Participants download the Play&Go application and register for the game. 2. The reference teacher, using an institutional email account, communicates the group data through the registration form. 3. Teams are formed to compete in the competition’s rankings.
Teams must comprise students from the same class, with a minimum of 10 students per team or the entire class for classes with fewer than 10 students. Classes achieving at least 90% participation receive an initial bonus of 300 Eco-Leaves points. Teachers interested in joining can also be part of the class team, with a limit of one team per teacher. Participants continue to use the Play&Go application to track their sustainable journeys. Each participant not only competes individually but also contributes to their team’s performance in the inter-school competition. In this competition, all Eco-Leaves points earned by team members throughout the competition’s duration using the Play&Go App are considered. The team accumulating the highest number of Eco-Leaves points, calculated as the average value of its members, emerges as the winner.
Throughout the competition, the global leaderboard of classes can be accessed via the Play&Go App and the AIR-BREAK website. Upon the competition’s conclusion, the teams leading the HSC Global Eco-Leaves Points Rankings will be awarded collective prizes.
Given the various gamified campaigns in the
AIRBREAK project, all aligned with a common theme, we
identified the need to develop a cross-sectional
questionnaire applicable across all campaigns that
incorporate game elements. From a long-term analysis
of previous campaigns [
RQ1. To what extent was the campaign effective in enhancing participants’ sustainable choices in terms of mobility?
RQ2. Is the preference for specific features of the campaign related to users’ motivation in making sustainable choices in terms of mobility?
RQ3.Are there any characteristics of the users that make them more prone to appreciate the campaign? 3 The full questionnaire can be retrieved here: https://osf.io/6mrga/?view_only=d9ecfb3b679e41ecbb0fde89404b 2e7b
The first research question stems from the fact that
the use of a gameful system does not mean guaranteed
success [
Two questionnaires were used to evaluate users’
appreciation for the campaign and behavioral change
in terms of sustainable mobility. The first
precampaign questionnaire consists of six categorical
items related to the background information on users’
preferences for means of transportation — including
bus, train, bike, walk, and car —, and one categorical
item for information about the app. The post-campaign
questionnaire repeats the same questions as the first
one, and then, for the core part, a model with five latent
and 13 manifest variables was formulated following
the results of previous campaign analyses [
The UMC (introduced in Section 2.1), ran from April 17, 2023, to September 24, 2023. Ferrara citizens tracked their sustainable movements through the Play&Go app, including cycling, walking, taking the bus, train, or carpooling. Participants actively took part in personalized mobility challenges, striving to climb the rankings and win various weekly and final prizes. The results of the campaign have been highly encouraging in terms of participation. As depicted in Figure 2, a total of 258 citizens joined the initiative, with 55% being women and 45% men. In terms of age distribution, participants between the ages of 35-50 accounted for 37.8%, while those in the 20-35 age group constituted 17.07%. Individuals between the ages of 50-70 comprised 43.9%, and those under 20 made up 1.22%. To provide us with detailed feedback on their enjoyment and effectiveness in behavioral change, the questionnaire was sent to participants at the end of the campaign.
The HSC (introduced in Section 2.2) lasted from April 3 to June 4, 2023, and utilized the Play&Go App. Through this application, students and teachers tracked their sustainable movements (cycling, walking, bus, train, or carpooling), engaging in team play, and climbing the rankings to win final prizes.
Notably, the HSC featured 7 teams (see Figure 3), with 5 teams composed of students and 2 teams consisting of teachers, adding a collaborative dimension to the challenge. The overarching goal of the HSC was to promote sustainable commuting between home and school, as well as during leisure time, for all students aged 14 and above. This objective was achieved through cooperative efforts within classes and inter-class competition among high schools. To provide us with detailed feedback on their enjoyment and effectiveness in behavioral change, the questionnaire was sent to participants at the end of the campaign.
Before analyzing the data comprehensively, we
carefully checked the theoretical arrangement of the
items against the data obtained through a
confirmatory analysis, and then grouped the items
differently within the questionnaire. Confirmatory
factor analysis (CFA) is employed to assess and
potentially refine a predefined model depicting the
relationships between latent variables (factors) and
observable (or measured) variables. CFA falls under
the umbrella of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), a
statistical method that amalgamates multivariate
techniques such as regression analysis and factor
analysis. SEM investigates the connections among
variables, encompassing both observable and latent
ones, within a model specified by the researcher based
on theoretical considerations and prior findings. The
model parameters are typically estimated using
techniques like maximum likelihood from the
covariance matrix of the observable variables [
Lastly, many authors do not rely on the analysis of
² value and its significance, as it is highly subject to
sample size [
We examined information gathered from 117 participants (female = 67, aged between 16 to 70 years old), who actively participated in two campaigns: HSC (N = 26) and UMC (N = 91), and completed the final questionnaire through Google Form. Of the 117 participants who completed the final questionnaire, 74 (all from the UMC campaign) had also completed a precampaign questionnaire.
We proposed an analysis method for the
questionnaire. Not to weight the number of items
related to the number of game elements, any item
related to the appreciation of game elements was
averaged (TA2), as were those related to behavior
change due to game elements (BC3). In addition, as
defined in other scales, such as MEEGA+ [
) + 2 with bus, train, bike, walk, and car being participants’ answers to a 6-point Likert scale on their mobility habits (1 = almost never, 6 = more than once a day). We examined participants who completed both the initial and final questionnaires to assess the effectiveness of the platform and gain insights into how users’ habits before using the app might impact post-results. We ran a series of Spearman correlations between EM, IM, the total score and (i) presustainability scores, (ii) post-sustainability scores, and (iii) ∆ scores, representing the difference between pre and post campaign scores. Furthermore, a Wilcoxon test was used to compare participants’ scores in the EM and IM constructs. To answer to RQ2, we analyzed participants’ open-ended responses to the question "What did you like the most about the campaign?" we categorized them into two groups based on their answers. Users’ answers were short and referred to specific elements of the campaign (e.g., "rewards", "points", "the initiative", "the idea"). We used a Mann-Whitney test to compare participants’ total scores. Then, we ran a rank-transformed ANOVA to compare IM and EM scores based on the elements users valued most. Finally, to answer to RQ3 a ranktransformed ANOVA was used to explore whether demographic characteristics, such as age and gender, influenced users’ total scores.
During the UMC campaign, exploiting the Play&Go app, nearly 31,000 journeys have been recorded that covered over 148,000 sustainable kilometers, with over 95,000 by bike and almost 15,000 walking (resulting in zero impact) (see Figure 4). The experiment demonstrated the ability to sustain citizens’ motivation in long-term campaigns, with continuous and consistent participation over the initiative’s duration of more than 5 months. Exploiting the post-campaign survey and in particular, analyzing items related to behavior change (items BC1 and BC2), the results showcased the capacity to change players’ behaviors: 94% of players stated they felt motivated to adopt more sustainable mobility habits. Specifically, 79% incorporated sustainable mobility habits into their daily commutes, and 77% for leisure travel. Finally, a significant outcome is the participants’ satisfaction, with 98% expressing a definite willingness to participate in future editions (item FB2). This initiative also led to the formation of a local community of motivated and active users advocating for more sustainable mobility.
For what concerns the HSC campaign, more than 100 students and teachers have participated in the HSC initiative, with over 3,000 tracked journeys, in Play&Go, covering more than 9,000 sustainable kilometers (of which 27% were by bike and another 27% walking - zero impact), and nearly 2 tons of CO2 saved (see Figure 5). Analyzing the post-campaign survey, the experiment has demonstrated the ability to change players’ behaviors (items BC1 and BC2): almost 70% of players claim to have adopted more sustainable mobility habits in their home-school (or home-work) commutes, while 75% have improved their habits during leisure time. Finally, an important result (item FB2) is the satisfaction of the participants (70% express a desire to participate in future editions) and the creation of a local community of motivated and active users for more sustainable mobility.
Figure 5: Use of different transportation means in HSC.
The test statistics for this model were RMSEA = 0.039,
²/df = 1.176, CFI = 0.986, and SRMR = 0.050. These
results indicated that the model fit was good (Figure
6). The data also indicated significant relationships
between several latent factors, however, two
hypothesized relationships (IM-BC, and EM-TA) were
not significant, so they were not reported in the model
structure. See Table 1 for a comprehensive overview.
The results show that users’ behavior change can be
explained by extrinsic motivation, thus conveyed
primarily by the rewards, while tool and game
elements’ attractiveness seem to be explained by
intrinsic motivation. Interestingly, the future behavior
is explained by both users’ expressed behavior change
values and tool attractiveness. As hypothesized, tool
appreciation and behavioral change reports go hand in
hand. Lastly, the final score for the campaign’s overall
appreciation, related to the item "Participating in
[campaign] was enjoyable overall", is explained by the
interaction with tool attractiveness and future
behavior. Based on these data, we were able to proceed
with the inferential analysis without having to change
the theoretical structure of the questionnaire and
without removing/changing items.
appreciation for the project (N = 117, M = 0.797, SD =
0.147). As is often the case with questionnaire data
with Likert-type scales [
Importantly, no correlation was found between prescores and the overall score, suggesting that the campaign’s appreciation is independent of participants’ previous habits in sustainable transportation. Finally, no correlations were observed between the other constructs and (i) pre-scores, (ii) post-scores, and (iii) ∆ scores. Then we confronted participants’ scores in the extrinsic motivation (EM) and intrinsic motivation (IM) constructs (N = 117). Also, in this case, we had to opt for a non-parametric test since data did not distribute normally. A Wilcoxon test highlighted a significant difference between the 5 https://cran.r-project.org/bin/windows/base/ 6 Supplementary material two constructs, with IM being higher than EM (Figure 8; W = 539, p-value < 0.001).
To answer RQ2, we analyzed participants’ responses to the question "What did you like the most about the campaign?" Forty-nine (49) participants did not reply to the open question (or replied "all" or "nothing"). Notably, a significant number of participants emphasized the reward aspects (Reward group, N = 27), while others expressed a preference for the initiative’s underlying idea, such as promoting sustainable mobility (Initiative group, N = 27). The remaining 14 participants’ replies focused on other elements, such as the competition, and traveling close to nature. We sought to explore whether users’ preferences had any impact on their scores in the overall score and the intrinsic motivation (IM) and extrinsic motivation (EM) constructs. First, a MannWhitney U test was employed to assess potential differences in the overall score between the two groups (initiative, reward). The results indicated no significant difference in the overall score between the two groups (W = 293, p-value = 0.219). Subsequently, a rank-transformed ANOVA was conducted (one factor between preference, 2 levels: initiative, reward; one factor within subscale, 2 levels: IM, EM). The results revealed a significant main effect for the subscale factor (F1,104 = 9.792, p-value = 0.002), while no significant main effect was observed for the preference factor (F1,104 = 0.234, p-value = 0.630). Tukey post-hoc test7 confirmed the difference between EM and IM (IM M = 4.296, SD = 0.729; EM M = 3.454, SD = 1.381; t = -3.129, p-value = 0.0023). Additionally, no significant interaction effect was present (F1,104 = 0.014, p-value = 0.907). Finally, to answer RQ3, we conducted a 2x4 rank-transformed ANOVA to examine potential differences in overall scores based on participants’ age and gender (2 between factors: age, 4 levels: "<20", "20-35", "36-50", "51-70"; gender, 2 levels: female, male). The results revealed no significant main effect for both age and gender (age: F3,109 = 2.149, p-value = 0.0982; gender: F1,109 = 1.2246, p-value = 0.271), and no significant interaction effect between the two (F3,109 = 1.790, pvalue = 0.153) (Figure 9). 7 Emmeans library
The mobility campaigns involved a total of 362
participants, producing a collective 33,987 sustainable
trips, for a total of 157,928 sustainable Kms, and
reducing CO2 emissions for a total of 34,8t. Analyzing
the questionnaires administered at the beginning and
end of the AIR-BREAK campaign, we found an increase
in terms of eco-sustainability by participants. In fact,
users reported significantly higher sustainability
scores at the end of the campaign. Furthermore, we
found that in the total number of users who completed
the post campaign questionnaire, the construct of
intrinsic motivation significantly outperforms that of
extrinsic motivation. This indicates that (RQ1) the
AIRBREAK campaign is effective in promoting
ecosustainable behaviors and particularly incentivizing
people to use more sustainable means in their daily
travel. Overall, the results obtained seem to indicate a
balance of the two to produce both a behavioral change
and an appreciation of the application, resulting in a
consequent long-term behavioral change expressed by
the users and an overall appreciation of the campaign.
As noted in the literature [
It is necessary to point out that the reported results
have limitations. First of all, data in the literature
report that for factor analyses, a size larger than 200
participants is recommended [
In this paper, we introduced AIR-BREAK, a project designed to promote sustainable behaviors within the general population, with a particular focus on encouraging eco-sustainable mobility practices. AIRBREAK has exhibited considerable success in facilitating a positive shift towards more sustainable daily travel methods. The mobility campaigns developed and implemented in this project garnered significant participation, resulting in a noteworthy increase in sustainable trips, and a reduction in CO2 emissions. The findings indicate that the gamified approach, incorporating intrinsic motivation and tool attractiveness, has proven effective in motivating individuals to embrace and maintain environmentally friendly transportation choices. The questionnaire analyses revealed an overall improvement in participants’ eco-sustainability scores. Notably, the campaign’s effectiveness transcends demographic characteristics such as gender and age, indicating its broad appeal and impact. It’s worth mentioning that while a significant number of participants identified rewards as a positive aspect of the campaign, this did not compromise their intrinsic motivation. In summary, the AIR-BREAK project has not only successfully met its initial goals of encouraging sustainable mobility throughout the campaign but has also established the groundwork for enduring behavioral transformations. The emergence of local communities championing sustainable mobility and the highly positive feedback from participants suggest the project’s potential for a more extensive societal influence. As urban centers persist in addressing the complexities of mobility, the AIR-BREAK project offers valuable lessons on the efficacy of gamified interventions in fostering environmentally conscious behaviors, opening avenues for future innovations in sustainable urban mobility initiatives.
The insights gained from the AIR-BREAK campaign provide a foundation for future initiatives aiming to promote sustainable behaviors. Moving forward, the positive correlation between intrinsic motivation and sustainability scores suggests a focus on designing gamified systems that tap into users’ inherent motivations. Furthermore, understanding the diverse preferences of participants — some favoring rewards while others valuing the initiative itself — indicates the potential for tailored campaign elements to engage a broader audience. To leverage these findings, future campaigns could implement adaptive gamification strategies, tailoring elements to individual preferences to maximize engagement. Additionally, considering the lack of significant differences in campaign appreciation based on age and gender, future initiatives might adopt inclusive design principles, ensuring accessibility and appeal across diverse demographic groups. Addressing limitations, future campaigns could strive for larger and more homogeneous sample sizes, employing robust methodologies for pre-post analyses. The integration of behavioral analysis alongside self-reported data could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the sustained impact of gamified interventions on participants’ mobility choices.
This work is supported by the AIR-BREAK project funded through the ERDF Urban Innovation Actions 2020 UIA 05-177. We also acknowledge the support of the PNRR ICSC National Research Centre for High Performance Computing, Big Data and Quantum Computing (CN00000013), under the NRRP MUR program funded by the NextGenerationEU.