=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3669/paper7
|storemode=property
|title=An educational leap of faith: Exploring the connections between instructional architectures and digital game spaces
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3669/paper7.pdf
|volume=Vol-3669
|authors=Michele Sardo,Mattia Thibault
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/gamifin/SardoT24
}}
==An educational leap of faith: Exploring the connections between instructional architectures and digital game spaces==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3669/paper7.pdf
An educational leap of faith: Exploring the connections
between instructional architectures and digital game
spaces
Michele Sardo1 and Mattia Thibault2
1 Guglielmo Marconi University, Department of Human Sciences, Via Plinio 44 - 00193 Roma, Italy*
2 Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences Tampere University, Kanslerinrinne 1, 33014,
Tampere, Finland
Abstract
The educational potential of games is nowadays widely accepted. Games, however, are multimodal
artifacts, featuring many characteristics that can contribute to educational experiences in different
ways. This paper engages one of these characteristics: that of the spatial organization in digital games.
Digital game space has been examined over time from different perspectives (e.g., historical, semiotic,
gameplay-based, environmental storytelling-based, etc.), but there is still a clear lack of studies
concerning the connections between digital game spaces and their pedagogical value. This exploratory
study aims to be the first step towards the establishment of a framework for the study and design of
game space for educational purposes. To do so, we have decided to focus on two key elements – the
instructional architectures and forms of gameplay afforded by different game spaces – and test them by
conducting on a case study of Assassin's Creed Odyssey Discovery Tour. This work aims to understand: a)
what instructional architectures are fostered by Assassin's Creed Odyssey Discovery Tour's digital game
space and how does this latter influence them; b) what synergies and contradictions emerge from the
creation of a space that aims simultaneously to allow educational practices and play. The case study
shows how the digital game title seems to mainly foster a receptive and, to a lesser extent, an exploratory
type of instructional architecture. Furthermore, this study showed what synergies and contradictions
emerge from a digital space that aims to create both playful and pedagogical experiences.
Keywords
Digital game space, game-based learning, instructional architectures, education, playful experiences2
holistic analytical approach [11] or from a semiotic-
1. Introduction semantic perspective [12, 13]. However, there is a
clear gap in the literature when it comes to
The spatial dimension is a key feature of digital games. investigating the connections between the features of
Their ability to create almost limitless virtual space, digital space and the effects they can have in the
and the different ways in which players can navigate pedagogical-educational sphere. This paper therefore
such space are major dimensions when it comes to proposes a preliminary exploration of digital game
game design. However, the design of game virtual space from an educational lens. In particular,
environments and spaces plays a crucial role also in we will draw some connections between the layouts,
terms of the educational experience that the game can spaces, and morphologies of ludic environments and
afford. Game Based Learning is nowadays a well- different instructional architectures. To do so, we will
established field, and the importance of digital games focus on the four architectures of instruction advanced
as educational tools is widely accepted and evidenced by Clark [14] which sets out four types of instructional
by the history of the meta-analyses [1, 2, 3, 4]. architecture, in combination with elements coming
Over time, digital game space has been explored from the frameworks on instructional architectures
from different perspectives. Several studies have and methodologies by Bonaiuti [15] and Bonaiuti,
investigated its potential in the context of digital Calvani and Ranieri [16].
storytelling [5, 6, 7, 8]. Others analyze it from a In order to explore these connections, we will
historical perspective [9], or through a engage a case study: Assassin's Creed Odyssey Discovery
multidisciplinary perspective across philosophy, Tour. The Discovery Tour (DT) is a special instance,
semiotics, and psychology [10]. Still others through a dedicated to educational purposes and to digital
8th International GamiFIN Conference 2024 (GamiFIN 2024), April 2- * The paper is the result of the joint effort of all authors. For the formal
5, 2024, Ruka, Finland. attribution, please consider sections 2, 3, 4 and 5 as written by Michele
m.sardo@unimarconi.it (M. Sardo); Sardo and sections 1 and 6 by Mattia Thibault.
mattia.thibault@tuni.fi (M. Thibault)
0009-0002-4297-7947 (M. Sardo);
0000-0002-3593-0350 (M. Thibault)
© 2024 Copyright for this paper by its authors. The use permitted under
Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR
ceur-ws.org
Workshop ISSN 1613-0073
Proceedings
68
tourism, of the commercial game Assassin’s Creed observation on the navigability of digital game media
Odyssey – which is primarily aimed at entertainment. is thus reformulated, since “the player can also
It is an emblematic case of a digital environment manipulate the space, interacting with the objects in it”
whose space (the represented architecture and game (Ibid.). Fernandez-Vara [21, 6] also points out that
environment) not only benefits from an accurate work digital game spaces can also have an effect on user
of historical reconstruction and a philological behavior. For instance, in a first-person shooter, the
reconstruction of the architecture of several iconic digital game space may encourage the user to shoot
monuments and cities of Classical Greece, (elements and run or, in a platform, it may encourage the
that have an intrinsic pedagogical potential), but also mechanics of jumping over obstacles in the game space
because it is a virtual environment that is designed to [6]. On the other hand, a game such as Assassin's Creed
be explorable for primarily educational purposes. This can, for instance, stimulate certain actions such as
case study, therefore, will allow us to look at the jumping, climbing and practicing parkour [22].
connections between the virtual space of the game and Therefore, from the existing literature on the
the educational architectures that it puts in place. Our connections between digital games and space, it
research questions (RQs), hence are the following: emerges that the latter assumes a fundamental
• RQ1: What instructional architectures are significance from various gameplay and narrative
fostered by Assassin's Creed Odyssey Discovery perspectives.
Tour’s digital game space and how does this latter The spatial organization of educational
influence them? environments has often been recognized as a key
• RQ2: What synergies and contradictions feature well before digital spaces. So much so that
emerge from the creation of a space that aims pedagogical traditions such as the Reggio Emilia
simultaneously to allow educational practices and Approach look at space as a metaphorical “third
play? teacher”, supporting a delicate balance between
providing structures and the learner's agency in terms
of free exploration [45] (see, especially, p. 41). This
2. Background view of space as personal tutor/teacher might be
easily extended to digital educational game realities, as
That space is a crucial element of digital games is the environment can play a similar role – potentially in
certainly not new, nor a recent discovery. As early as an even stronger way, as it is often an interactive
the 1990s, Murray [17] identifies space as a environment.
fundamental property of digital environments (along Therefore, while space is a key feature of any
with the procedural, participatory and encyclopedic digital game (including those designed for
dimensions), pointing out that the navigability of fun/entertainment) it assumes a different form when
spaces is the element that differentiates digital we look at games for learning – that is, games that
environments from other media. Cecilia Pearce [18] purposefully expose the player to intrinsically
focuses on analyzing digital games as “spatial media” pedagogical content. Such games often offer a tutoring
aimed at creating “experiences”. Wolf [19], system to the learner, which is a key factor in the
concentrating on in-game and out-game spatial education/learning process (see, e.g., the discussion on
architectures, emphasizes how interaction and the relevance of tutoring in the learning process of
navigation make digital game space unique compared educational games [46]). The environment, then, can
to other media. Aarseth [20], one of the pioneers of be thought of as part of this process: digital space can
game studies, asserts that “the defining element in be seen as a “meta-tutor”, i.e., a “third-tutor” of an
computer games is spatiality. Computer games are already “tutoring” environment. A feature, the latter,
essentially concerned with spatial representation and that often markedly distinguishes how games for
negotiation, and therefore a classification of computer learning approach the process of learning, compared
games can be based on how they represent or, perhaps, to games for fun.
implement space.” (p. 44). Jenkins [7], looks at digital The new perspective we intend to investigate here,
game space as a form of training for narrative design, hence, is the connection between the digital game
and emphasizes the importance of space in digital space and its ability to produce significant pedagogical
game media, remarking that “Game designers don't effects. Thus, taking up Pearce's idea [18], according to
simply tell stories; they design worlds and sculpt which the design of spatial media (games) has as its
spaces.” (p. 121). In this regard, he speaks of evocative aim the creation of “experiences”, we add here that
spaces, i.e., spaces capable of telling stories that engage these videogame spaces can have as a direct or indirect
with the user's prior narrative background. In the consequence the creation of more or less significant
same vein, Nitsche [11], deepening the connections “pedagogical experiences”.
between space and the act of playing and digital games
through a holistic approach, speaks of evocative
narrative elements: elements designed to guide the 3. Methodology
player's understanding. Still on the subject of digital
game spaces and storytelling, Fernández-Vara [6] The present study has an exploratory and qualitative
refines the concept of environmental storytelling by nature. Our approach is articulated in four main steps.
introducing the concept of indexical storytelling After setting the stage for this research with a
according to which “Storytelling becomes a game of narrative literature review, we selected a specific case
story-building, since the player has to piece together study, formulated an analytical framework to
the story, or construct a story of her own interaction in approach it, and analyzed it (and reflected on the
the world by leaving a trace.” (p.1). Murray's
69
analysis results). In this section we will provide the supporting pedagogical principles pertaining to
specifics of the methods we adopted. different educational architectures.
3.2. Selection of a case study
Second, we selected the Assassin's Creed Odyssey
Discovery Tour as a relevant example of digital space
that was specifically configured to create
formative/educational experiences. Among many
possible articulations of virtual space, this case has a
few key characteristics that, as we shall see later, make
it crucial for fostering our understanding of how game
space can be designed, managed and actualized in an
educational effort. We are dealing with a recent, triple-
A, game (from 2018) which can therefore represent
the state of the art and the full potential of the medium.
It is the educational mode of an entertainment-
oriented title, which has been explicitly designed for
formative/educational purposes. The educational
material is framed like a “tour” suggesting a strong
spatial characteristic in the organization of the
materials. The digital game features explorable,
navigable spaces and possibilities for interaction with
the surrounding environment. Additionally, the space
Figure 1: Workflow of the methodological process of this Discovery Tour features a historical
reconstruction of several culturally relevant spaces of
Ancient Grece. While the reconstruction is adapted to
3.1. Narrative Literature review the representational and ludic needs of the game [51]
a considerable attention was given to the
First, we have conducted a short narrative literature reconstruction of historical architectures, buildings,
review [23] looking at the existing studies on the atmosphere and environments of Antiquity. Finally,
connections between space and digital games. The while there are no studies on the relationship of its use
databases used for bibliographic research were ERIC, of virtual space and its educational strategies, this
one of the main sources for educational research, and game has been consistently analyzed in the literature
the search engines Google and Google Scholar. We through both experimental and argumentative studies.
searched for topics concerning the analysis of the The presence of a corpus of academic literature related
digital/video game space. The bibliographical analysis to this game, seems to support its relevance as an
was useful to outline several key dimensions of this object of study.
relationship in terms of game design and gameplay. At The Assassin's Creed franchise, has been analyzed
the same time, the review revealed a clear research over time from different perspectives in academic
gap: despite many important studies on the spatial literature [24, 25, 26, 27, 22, 28, 29). Beyond the
dimension of digital games [17, 18, 19, 20, 5, 6, 8, 7, 9, narrative elements that may entertain the gamer as a
10, 11, 12, 13] there is a lack of studies analyzing how motivational drive, what is most striking about this
virtual game spaces can impact pedagogical series (and partially helps to motivate playing) is
approaches in game-based learning. From a game- precisely the space and the game environment, since
based learning perspective figuring out how the digital “Ubisoft’s Assassin’s Creed series has, since its very
space encourages certain instructional architectures is inception, been based on historical reconstructions”
crucial for understanding how the digital space can be [22] (p. 48). Precisely by virtue of elements such as the
projected and organized in order to improve period-specific environments, landscapes and
educational experiences. Moreover, it is also important architectures, in addition to the fact that the player can
to understand the leeway of educators/teachers in interact and converse with important characters from
using these games as game-based learning tools. A history (such as Herodotus, da Vinci, Plato, etc.), there
space that encourages too much exploration (and thus are those who enthusiastically reported that “the
incentivizes an exploratory type of didactic Assassin’s Creed franchise has gained a strong
architecture) may be dispersive for the learner, reputation with players interested in history around
overloading the cognitive load excessively. This may the world, systematically offering them the
require teaching interventions of briefing or de- opportunity to learn while playing” [29] (p. 79). On the
briefing respectively pre- or post-game session. On the heels of this excitement, some have even spoken of this
other hand, a space that, for instance, encourages a saga as an enticing virtual time machine [27]. Going
receptive type of architecture (i.e., in which the learner beyond this enthusiasm, one can agree, however, that
is a passive receiver of information), may require an it must be acknowledged that there is a clear love of
instructional design (post-game session) oriented the past behind these games, especially by virtue of
towards experiential/active learning activities. This employing historians and consulting with experts [27]
then led to the formulation of specific questions (p. 319).
regarding the influence these spaces can have in
70
Assassin's Creed Discovery Tours are additional them to link Working Memory (WM) to Long-Term
stand-alone modes of some chapters of the famous Memory (LTM). The risk is a strong cognitive
digital game saga Assassin's Creed designed primarily overload, it can be used as a briefing to introduce
for formative and educational purposes. Through concepts, especially if supported by written (and
these digital game environments, it is possible to audiovisual) materials. An example is the typical
explore places, iconic monuments within contexts and well-established lectio (e.g., university
such as Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and Viking-era lecture).
Europe either freely (free-roaming) or by deciding to • Behavioral Architecture: it is a fairly well-
follow guided itineraries. Winners of awards such as established architecture in education. It is
Best Learning Game3, they stand out within the current characterized by a procedure in which knowledge
educational game panorama for features such as: acquisition proceeds gradually bottom-up,
realism in graphical rendering, attention to the through a constant stimulus-response process.
reconstruction of historical architectures and Although this architecture keeps the cognitive load
compartment, and great immersiveness. at bay (useful for novice learners), the risks are
The Discovery Tour of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, our that it does not allow deep development of
case study, was introduced in 2019. It is set in Classical metacognitive skills and easily demotivates more
Greece. This type of mode, unlike the title that is part advanced learners. Clark suggests using for
of the saga (Odyssey), does not feature any gameplay beginner learners.
elements related to violence (no killing, no blood, no • Situated Guided Discovery Architecture:
dying allowed) and does not follow the saga's lending itself to more constructivist approaches
narrative line. It does, however, retain the same “compared to the behavioral architectures, the
characteristic mechanics of the franchise, such as guided discovery approaches emphasize the
those related to exploring, climbing, jumping, and building of unique knowledge bases versus
experimenting with parkour. consistent acquisition of predetermined
knowledge and skill hierarchies” (p. 34). It is
characterized by higher learner control, as well as
3.3. Creation of an analytic high interactivity with the outside world, and a
framework problem solving or discovery approach (which
may be more or less facilitated). Unlike the
Third, we outlined a framework for the analysis of our behavioral-transmissive architecture, feedback is
case study. The framework focuses on two main axes: not tied to the “right-wrong” dichotomy but is
instructional architectures and ludic relationships multisourced and naturalistic and the learning
with space. process is more global than bottom-up. It also
The axis dedicated to instructional architectures is provides the learner with ways of finding
based it on the key concepts presented in Clark [14] in solutions. This architecture could, however, stress
relation to instructional architecture - in combination the learner's cognitive abilities.
with later studies refining Clark’s approach [15, 16]. • Exploratory Architecture: it “is designed on
Clark's work, although not exhaustive, has the merit of a premise of high learner control” (p. 35). It
elaborating clearly a synthetic framework, within requires good metacognitive skills and prior
which the most frequently used instructional knowledge. This also suggests when it is
architectures were illustrated and described through appropriate to use it. It also allows one to control
systematic parameters. Clark [14] proposes a the rhythm of information transmission. Several
taxonomy that “can be used to consider different phases of “optional practice” (or even de-briefings)
strategic approaches for meeting various human might be appropriate.
cognitive and performance task needs.” (p. 32). She Although Clark is mostly referring to the use of IT
describes four types of instructional architecture: instruments in his architectures (Clark's was writing
receptive, behavioral, guided discovery, and when e-learning was in its infancy), the assumptions
exploratory. These are analyzed systematically across and principles of each architecture are still valid. For
four dimensions: Cognitive Impact, Cognitive Overload, instance, the risk of getting “lost-in-hyperspace” in
LTM Encoding Failures, Metacognitive Skills. exploratory architectures, is just as applicable in the
Furthermore, for each of them Clark introduces a digital game experience as it is for other mediated
historical overview and advice on when it is environments (metaverse, XR, etc.). Clark's work is a
appropriate to use them. The following is a concise point of reference for instructional design, as
overview, designed to give an understanding of the evidenced by its impact in supporting numerous
characteristic elements. follow up studies that developed its contents and
• Receptive Architecture: this is the oldest structure or used it as a basis for the creation of
instructional architecture and the most widely methodological instructional taxonomies to concretely
used in the training/educational field. It is guide educators/teachers in their teaching activities
characterized by a lack of interaction with the [30, 31, 32, 15, 16].
outside world and presents a strong control from The work of Bonaiuti [15] and Bonaiuti, Calvani
the didactic source (be it a digital game medium, and Ranieri [16], in addition to introducing new
teacher, tutor, etc.). It therefore requires students instructional architectures, link these to precise
to already have well-developed metacognitive teaching strategies and clearly articulate the factors
skills and a pre-knowledge of the content, enabling that characterize each architecture: degree of
3 https://g4cawards.secure-platform.com/a/page/past_winners
71
system/learner control, level of information pre- • Playful Use of Space – focusing on how play
structuring, degree of learner/system interaction. We can reimagine space and the expectations
will refer to these factors, together with Clark's model, connected to its use.
to understand which instructional architectures are Our framework, therefore, allow to look, at the same
supported by the digital game space. time, at both the instructional architecture that is
The axis dedicated to ludic relationships to space is implicitly supported by the virtual space of a game, and
grounded on the long tradition of research on the how (and in what measure) that same space supports
topic. There is an intrinsic and intimate relationship gameplay and, simultaneously, can be renegotiated by
between play and games and space. The famous playful behavior.
concept of “magic circle”, from Huizinga [33] In the table below (Table 1), we summarize the
describes, among other things, how play delimitates main metrics used, connected to the respective two
space, and reshapes it according to it needs (for axes of our analytic framework, for the case study
example in tracks, pitches, courts, if we look at sports). analysis. The assignment of these metrics was based
Games, however, often escape spatial delimitations, on personal evaluations by both authors, based on
and pervades the spaces of everyday life [34], common criteria, that where then discussed until we
“coloring” them in playful ways. There is a long reached an agreement. The metrics for the axis of
tradition of playful exploration and engagement with instructional architectures largely correspond to the
urban spaces, that ranges from the idea of flânerie as a main characterizing factors/variables featured in the
free careless movement in the city [35] and of derive, a works of Clark [14], Bonaiuti [15] and Bonaiuti,
playful abandon to the currents of urban life, all the Calvani and Ranieri [16] to categorize various
way to the playful valorizations of the e-scooters that instructional architectures. Here, they are adapted and
populate many contemporary cities [36], and focus translated to the field of digital games, whereby:
more on speed, risk and swiftness. Practices such as • The teacher corresponds to the instructional
skateboarding and parkour, which reinterpret urban source (system)
furniture and architecture as supports for playful • The learner corresponds to the player
acrobatic movement, have been described as forms of
urban gamification [37] – and have been imitated Table 1
promptly in digital games. The Assassin’s Creed Analytic Framework Overview
franchise relies strongly on the parkour-like Analytic Framework
movement of its characters. David Belle, the founder of Instructional Degree of player
the discipline of parkour, notes in an interview4 how architectures - (learner)/instructional source
this form of acrobatic movement has a similar
metrics (system) control: low to high
dimension both in the game and in real life: it distracts
Level of Information pre-
from the expected behavior of the space and allows
Translation and structuring: low to high
free and pleasurable exploration.
The fundamental relationship between urban adaptation from Pace and mode of information
space and game has also been theories in a systematic [14, 15, 16] transmission
way, both in creative projects such as Constant Degree of interaction between
Nieuwenhuys “New Babylon”, a city of eternal player (learner) and
exploration designed for the homo ludens [38] and in instructional source (system):
frameworks such as that of the Ludic City [39] or the from absent/poor to high
Playable City [40]. All these perspectives seem to Ludic Spatial Affordances for Play:
highlight the ability of play and games to give meaning relationships with elements related to how the
to the space and therefore to orient the behavior of space - metrics design of virtual space has been
people within them – often in ways that go against oriented to invite specific forms
norms, and sometime the law. Similar engagements of play actions
with space emerge also clearly in digital games, for Playful Use of Space:
example when spaces are explored for glitches and elements related to how play
exploits while doing a “speed run” [41] i.e., trying to can reimagine space and the
complete the game as fast as possible, disregarding the
expectations connected to its
rules.
use
All in all, it seems that the relationship between
games and space is twofold: on the one hand, the
design of (digital) game spaces enable, support, and 3.4. Analysis
direct gameplay. On the other hand, however, a playful
behavior tends to disrupt expectations, and favor free Fourth, we have used our framework to guide our
exploration and the enjoyment of speed and risk analysis of the selected case study: Assassin’s Creed
taking. From these perspectives we derived two main Odyssey Discovery Tour. The analysis aims to answer
aspects for our analysis: our research questions.
• Spatial Affordances for Play – focusing on Our analysis takes the form of a close reading [42]
how the design of virtual space has been oriented where the game is played and experienced by the
to invite specific forms of play actions. researchers, who unpack the game content and
systematize it. While being necessarily a form of
situated research – based in some measure on the
4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9LS2Ewe8FTI&t=144s
72
personal interpretation of the researchers – our close Through the game menu, one accesses a quite large
reading was guided by our framework. During play, we and representative map of a fairly accurate Classical
have kept a “gameplay diary” [43, 44] where we have Greece [27] (p. 319). Iconic ancient regions are
annotated our impressions, collected screenshots and represented (Figure 2), e.g., the island of Kefalonia, the
wrote down anything that seemed relevant for our region of Boeotia, Attika, Achaia, Lakonia, Arcadia, Elis,
analysis. parts of Makedonia, Crete, the Aegean islands, etc. The
During play, we focused primarily on the aspects of regions are full of fast travel points (marked by the
the game related to the exploration of digital space and green eagle icon) and “tour” points (marked by a black
connections between spatial and pedagogical and white flag symbol). The game features a total of
elements. The device used to run the game was the 228 Discovery Tour sites and 30 Behind the Scenes,
PlayStation Five. The analysis involved two main points of interest with informative captions, marked
phases: by a purple light in game space, and represented with
• First, we familiarized ourselves with the a black circle indicating a compass/cross on the map
game, its controls and the main game elements. (Figure 2), scattered throughout the game world. Also,
• Second, we played the game. Due to the within the menu, by switching to the Tours section
vastness of the open-world area (38 regions) of the (Figure 3), tours are presented divided by different
game, we concentrated on exploring the tours and themes (Daily Life; Politics and Philosophy; Art,
the environment within the boundaries of a Religion, and Myths; Battles and Wars; Famous Cities)
specific region of the map (Attika), as it is not only for a total of 30 tours. Each tour reports an estimated
one of the most representative of Classical Greece, time for completion and is led by a guide (there are 5
but also because it seems to be the richest in game tour guides, historical or fictional characters: Aspasia,
activities. During this phase we realized our Leonidas, Markos, Herodotus and Barnabas). Each
gameplay diaries. guide conducts the tour that is most appropriate to his
Finally, we organized and compared our diaries and or her historical background (e.g., Leonidas is in charge
observations of the game, systematizing them of conducting the tours on the theme Battles and
according to our framework and highlighting the Wars). Still within the menu it is possible to consult the
synergies and contradictions between the two axes: Character section, where there are characters to unlock
the instructional architecture and the ludic and a Mount selection (rides to unlock). The release of
relationship with the game space. these characters is the vaguely gamified game-design
element to encourage exploration (unlocking depends
on how many discovery sites/tours one has visited).
4. Results Finally, there are sections for controls and a section
called Timeline that allows one to diachronically
1. The first phase was used to familiarize ourselves retrace the best-known events in Greek history, from
with the gameplay and game mechanics those situated in the Minoan Civilization (2700-1350
BCE) to those relating to the period of the Battle of
Thermopylae (480 BCE) and the Peloponnese (431-
404 BCE).
Figure 2: A portion of the vast map. The cursor
indicates the region of Attika. The borders are marked
with a white line - In-game screenshot
Figure 4: The player suspended above the statue of
Athena, located in the Acropolis of Athens. In the
background the Parthenon - In-game screenshot
2. At this second phase, we concentrated on
exploring the digital game spaces offered by the digital
game. We therefore started with the introductory tour
The Acropolis of Athens and continued with others,
such as Battle of Marathon, School of Greece – Music,
School of Greece - Theatre, etc. Exploring the tours,
what is most striking is the feeling of immersiveness,
this is due to multiple elements in the space. First of all,
Figure 3: The Tours menu, with the different the photorealism: it actually feels like living spaces
discovery tours divided into themes - In-game very close to reality. The graphical rendering is truly
screenshot remarkable. This realism can be seen, for instance, in
the reproduction of elements that are notoriously
difficult to reproduce, such as the fire and smoke from
73
the braziers scattered around the game space or the not particularly demanded by tours, almost always
reproduction of the water surface with its waves near optional, which mostly serves to enrich the experience
the port of Piraeus. Subsequently, the liveliness of the and playfulness of the game. Therefore, these are
environment, given by a large quantity of NPCs in elements (pre-structuring of info, limited interaction
period clothing moving and talking, singing and and control of information by the system) that
praying (in Ancient Greek) in front of monuments. characterize receptive-transmissive architectures [14,
Furthermore, the majesty of the buildings and 15, 16].
monuments, such as the imposing statue of Athena Within the tour, one may come across discovery
(Figure 4). sites, points of interest marked with a purple light and,
This feeling of immersiveness and the desire to by clicking on the triangle command, discover
know more about the places prompted more additional information about the game environment
exploration of the play spaces and parkour (information caption). The player can clearly decide
experiments. We have seen a philological attention to not to follow the tour and explore on his own.
detail, such as the interior of the Parthenon, which is However, once the tour is activated, by straying too far
full of treasures, as it must have been at the time. In from the tour area, the game warns that if one decides
addition, we noticed a considerable abundance of to continue the exploration, one will lose the progress
elements in the urban space: places filled with statues, of the tour and, consequently, also the final quiz aimed
temples, columns, vases of different sizes and kinds, at finding out whether knowledge has been gained.
flags or curtains depicting the symbols of cities, and Nonetheless, on the side of exploratory
other architectural elements typical of the period architecture, the player does not remain totally
(each environmental decoration is extremely passive. Already the mere fact of being able to decide
detailed). Experiencing parkour, we felt a great sense whether to explore the tours through the game map
of freedom. In fact, it is possible to climb almost any (by teleporting close to or directly onto the relevant
building, jump from rooftop to rooftop, overcome tour), through the selection of the various themes
obstacles along the way, grab onto ledges and scale any directly from the Tours section of the menu, to follow a
wall. This feeling of freedom was then amplified by temporal approach from the Timeline section of the
experiencing the thrill of doing what is not allowed in menu, decide to rely on walking exploration of the
the real world, such as climbing over monuments like game world, or even decide to implement several
the Parthenon or jumping off the Acropolis in Athens. approaches, is a game-design mechanic that in itself
As regards the tour, we noticed that a linear route indirectly contributes to a certain freedom in the
must be followed to complete it. Each stop on the tour exploration of the game world. The exploration of the
(corresponding to a monument/historical place) is spaces can also make use of two other elements; the
accompanied by a narrator explaining its history or eagle call, a mechanic that is activated with the up
curiosities. In addition, immediately after discovering arrow of the gamepad and that shifts the character's
a monument/place, there is a caption that show real view to that of an eagle, giving you a bird's-eye view of
images of different existing museums, so that the surrounding area, in order to orient yourself, so as
comparisons with the real world can also be made. to decide to map a site or a tour one intends to explore;
Each tour has a final quiz to measure the knowledge the use of a mount, which helps in reaching the
acquired. The environment therefore offers many designated places faster and partially contributes to
opportunities to get to know and learn about the the user’s enjoyment during the exploration. The
culture of Classical Greece. In exploration, we made player is, of course, free to explore any place on the
use of game elements such as mounts and vast map of Ancient Greece. This contributes, together
teleportation through fast travels on the game map. with the parkour mechanics and the different
We then selected tours such as Battle of Marathon approaches that can be used to explore the world, to a
directly from the Timeline Menu. We used also the feeling of full control and freedom in exploration; the
Tours menu (Figure 3), where we selected Democracy high degree of freedom and the strong control by the
in Athens. Finally, we noticed that characters and player/learner (in this case: deciding autonomously
mounts are unlocked based on how many sites and where to go, what to visit, how and when to explore)
discovery tours are completed. are in fact the defining factors of exploratory
architectures [14, 15, 16].
It should be noted, however, that the vaguely
5. Discussion gamified mechanics of unlocking new playing
characters or mounts do not seem to be fully sufficient
To answer the first question (RQ1). The game space in motivating exploration of the game environment.
seems to lend itself to two main types of educational Even if this is an additional mode of the title (for which
architecture: the receptive one, which is predominant, there are no elements such as storytelling, stealth, etc.)
and, to a lesser extent, the exploratory one. it would certainly have been useful to add other
The game is mainly based on guided tours; once a mechanics/dynamics in the Discovery Tour, such as
tour is undertaken, the game space pushes for its other non-plot-related mini-challenges, or a clear
completion, indicating to the player the direction to system of progress bars, badges, scores, etc. The
follow through yellow lines. The player thus stays in excellent graphical rendering, the care for the
the shoes of a visitor who step by step follows a reconstruction of the environment, understanding the
predetermined itinerary. The pre-structuring of history, art and culture of the ancient world, talking to
information is therefore high, interaction is limited to iconic characters and understanding their historical
experiencing parkour (i.e., climbing, jumping and background, together with being able to experience
scrambling over monuments or buildings), a mechanic parkour in a vast open-world world, constitute
74
elements that certainly contribute overall in the architecture. The linearity of tour spaces is in fact
process of discovering the digital game space. Yet, this connected to: strong control and pre-structuring of
is something that may depend on the gamer’s information by the system; elements that
inclinations or passions. A user not too fascinated by characterize receptive type architectures [14, 15, 16].
the architecture or history of the Greek world may not Limited interaction with the environment is related to:
find sufficient stimulation to explore the game world. scarce interaction with the system; also a
As regards spatial organization, there seems to be characterizing factor of this architecture [14, 15, 16].
an imbalance between the enormous vastness of the 2. As concerns the Playful Use of Space, that is given
explorable game space and the distribution of by a combination of different aspects:
tours/points of interest. The player can also randomly • Parkour mechanics: elements such as
discover the various points of interest (discovery sites jumping, climbing and clinging everywhere enrich
and behind the scene) scattered throughout the game and gamify the play experience, allowing to break
space without activating any tours. Nevertheless, the linearity of the tours and stimulating more
discovery sites are mostly concentrated in areas where exploration of the play spaces. It also allows one to
a tour is present. In addition, there are areas very experience the thrill of performing actions that one
dense with activities such as Attika or Lakonia and cannot do in the real world (playful forms similar
quite empty areas such as the island of Crete (with only to the Ilinix described by Callois), such as climbing
one tour), Boeotia (no tour) or, even more over statues and monuments such as the
conspicuously, the various Aegean islands (some with Parthenon, jumping from one monument to
neither tours nor points of interest). Finally, there are another, or even throwing oneself down into the
many repetitive spaces and many empty natural void from the acropolis of Athens.
landscapes. This clearly has an impact on exploration. • Exploratory mechanics: elements such as
In fact, one can run the risk of exploring for a long time the eagle call, or the use of mounts allow for a
without finding points of interest (in the event that one playful use of space and help facilitate/support
does not use tools such as the map, teleportation, eagle exploration.
call and mount). • Urban furniture: the digital spaces teem
In relation to the second research question (RQ2), with elements, such as NPCs living in the city
The synergies and contradictions of space can be (polis) simulating real attitudes (they move, sing,
explained through the two perspectives connected to talk to each other) or buildings, colored statues,
the axis related to ludic relationships with space of our amphorae, vases of the period. All this leads to
framework: Spatial Affordances for Play and Playful letting oneself be carried away by exploration and
Use of Space. playing more with urban space.
1. As regards Spatial Affordances for Play, we can • Photorealism: the high level of detail in the
say that these are given by a combination of several reconstruction of the environments gives the
factors: player the sensation of experiencing places very
• Linearity of tour spaces: elements in the similar to the real thing, thus soliciting
space, such as the yellow line that indicate the immersiveness and exploration free from the
player which way to follow to complete the tour, or schemes of discovery tours.
the alert message that warns, once the tour is The combination of these elements, as well as
activated, that you are straying too far from the increasing the playfulness of the space, help to support
path and may lose progress, induce the player to an exploratory instructional architecture. The
choose to follow a predetermined itinerary. mechanics of parkour and exploration are in fact
• Limited interaction with environment: the linked to: strong control and freedom of the
ability to interact with the setting is limited to learner, factors characterizing the exploratory
parkour, an almost always optional component. architecture [14, 15, 16].
This, unlike the saga from which the tour is
derived, lacks a pragmatic function (e.g., climbing,
running away or running across rooftops to avoid 6. Conclusion and future
being seen by enemies). This clearly induces the
player to follow rule-based gameplay.
perspectives
• Unbalanced space layout: the points of
This study has shown how the digital game space of
interest (discovery sites), while scattered across the
Assassin's Creed Odyssey Discovery Tour seems to
vast game map, are mostly concentrated in the
encourage more a receptive instructional architecture
surroundings of the tours. Furthermore, outside
and, to a minor extent, an exploratory instructional
the urban areas, there are many empty spaces.
architecture. Furthermore, our study showed what
This not only causes the player to concentrate
synergies and contradictions emerge from a digital
more on gameplay in the proximity of the tours (to
space that aims to create both playful and pedagogical
the detriment of free exploration), but also causes
experiences.
the player to run the risk of exploring for a long
We have, in fact, identified specific main factors
time without finding any points of interest (in case
relating to the axis of the ludic relationship with the
that he does not use mechanics such as fast travel,
game space (linearity of tour spaces, limited
eagle call and mount).
interaction with environment, unbalanced space
The combination of these elements, in addition to
layout, parkour mechanics, exploratory mechanics,
explaining how the design of the virtual space was
urban furniture, photorealism) that, in relation to the
geared towards inviting specific forms of playful
actions, encourages a receptive type of instructional
75
pedagogical axis, evoke, intertwine and connect with for example, are not Triple-A, or feature different
characterizing factors of instructional architectures. representations of space such as God-games, or even
In conclusion, research results may indirectly analogue games). A systematic engagement with
provide useful insights into the use of the digital different ways of articulating game space, afford
environment as a Game-Based Learning tool. Different playful actions and support educational outcomes
instructional architectures can indeed lead to different could pave the way to a new set of strategies that
forms of learning. The transmissive-receptive would enrich the existing approaches to Game Based
architecture, the oldest and still used today, through Learning.
features such as linearity (and unilaterality) of the
transmission of information, low interaction with the
learner (player in this case) and strong control by the Acknowledgements
teacher (in this case the instructional source) can lead
to "knowledge-based", mechanical, by reception, or The present research has been supported by funds
often "mnemonic" forms of learning. It could therefore from the National Recovery and Resilience Plan –
be ideal, e.g., for briefing and de-briefing situations. NRRP to Guglielmo Marconi University - PhD
On the other hand, an exploratory architecture, Programme in Human Sciences (PhD scholarship
assuming a more active role of the student (learner- assigned to Michele Sardo ex DM 351/2022; CUP
centered), through features such as strong control C87G22000670001; scholarship unique ID 1879).
(and freedom) of the learner (player), poor pre-
structuring of information, can lead to forms of
meaningful learning [48] (which often occurs through References
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