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{{Paper
|id=Vol-3795/icaiw_aiesd_3
|storemode=property
|title=Evaluation by an Expert Panel of Agroecological Practices in Olive Groves from an Environmental, Economic and Technical Feasibility Perspective
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3795/icaiw_aiesd_3.pdf
|volume=Vol-3795
|authors=Arnaldo Vergara-Romero,Emilio González-Sánchez,Nazaret M. Montilla-López,Manuel Arriaza
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/icai2/Vergara-RomeroG24
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==Evaluation by an Expert Panel of Agroecological Practices in Olive Groves from an Environmental, Economic and Technical Feasibility Perspective==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3795/icaiw_aiesd_3.pdf
Evaluation by an Expert Panel of Agroecological Practices
in Olive Groves from an Environmental, Economic and
Technical Feasibility Perspective
Arnaldo Vergara-Romero* , Emilio González-Sánchez, Nazaret M. Montilla-López and
Manuel Arriaza
Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, España
Abstract
The transition towards sustainable agricultural practices is imperative to address the environmental challenges
posed by conventional farming systems. Agroecology, a holistic approach that integrates ecological principles into
agricultural practices, offers a promising pathway for achieving sustainable olive cultivation. This study delves into
the viability of agroecological practices in olive groves, encompassing their social, economic, and environmental
benefits. Drawing upon scientific evidence and insights from previous research, we evaluate the sustainability of
diverse agroecological practices in olive cultivation. To achieve our objective of developing a comprehensive
strategy for promoting more sustainable olive oil production, we employed the Delphi method, engaging a panel
of 26 experts to assess the viability of 12 agroecological practices based on various criteria, including biodiversity
enhancement, soil management, climate change mitigation, water management, and cultural ecosystem services.
Our findings highlight the exceptional performance of several agroecological practices, particularly living covers,
pruning residue covers, minimal soil disturbance, and the implementation of multifunctional margins and buffer
strips. These practices consistently received high scores across all five evaluation criteria, demonstrating their
remarkable potential to contribute to a sustainable olive cultivation system.
Keywords
Agroecology, Olive groves, Sustainability, Delphi method, Spain
1. Introduction
The traditional production system has been criticized for its environmental impact, including soil
erosion, agrochemical pollution, and biodiversity loss. In this sense, agroecology emerges as a medium
and long-term alternative for sustainable olive grove management. Additionally, Agroecology promotes
a holistic approach that integrates ecological, social, and economic principles to design more resilient,
productive, and progressively fair agricultural systems.
Francis et al. [1] argued that a comprehensive approach necessitates the integration of both natural
and social sciences, underpinned by systems thinking and ecological principles. This perspective
underscores the importance of considering all stakeholders involved in food production and distribution,
from input suppliers to consumers. Moreover, the authors highlighted the need to trace the complete
flow of energy and materials throughout the food system, including the potential for nutrient recycling.
This holistic framework provides a foundation for addressing the complexities of sustainable food
production and consumption.
Research over the last fifteen years has shown that various agroecological practices are often effective
in improving soil, reducing the use of synthetic inputs, increasing biodiversity, and enhancing ecosystem
services in olive groves.
The adoption of agroecological practices in olive groves can contribute to improving environmental,
economic, and social sustainability. This involves assessing the economic impact of adopting the practice
ICAIW 2024: Workshops at the 7th International Conference on Applied Informatics 2024, October 24–26, 2024, Viña del Mar, Chile
*
Corresponding author.
$ z82veroa@uco.es (A. Vergara-Romero); emilio.gonzalez@uco.es (E. González-Sánchez); 0000-0002-9265-1892
(N. M. Montilla-López); es1arbam@uco.es (M. Arriaza)
0000-0001-8503-3685 (A. Vergara-Romero); 0000-0002-8031-6595 (E. González-Sánchez); g02molon@uco.es
(N. M. Montilla-López); 0000-0002-4138-9249 (M. Arriaza)
© 2024 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
CEUR
ceur-ws.org
Workshop ISSN 1613-0073
Proceedings
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Arnaldo Vergara-Romero et al. CEUR Workshop Proceedings 65–73
on the profitability of farms and the technical difficulty of its adoption by farmers.
The objective of this article is to analyze the sustainability of various agroecological practices in olive
groves, considering both their impact on farm profitability and their technical feasibility, with the aim
of developing a comprehensive strategy to promote more sustainable olive oil production.
1.1. Background
Olive groves face various challenges in the current context, such as agricultural intensification, climate
change, and biodiversity loss. Agroecology aims to address these challenges and build a more sustainable
and resilient production system. Table 1 shows some agroecological practices oriented towards olive
groves.
These agroecological practices in olive groves offer various benefits. An example of the latter is
the incorporation of elements such as trees, hedges, and wildflowers into olive groves, which create
habitats for a wide variety of plant and animal species. The adoption of these practices can generate a
positive impact on the environment, creating a more sustainable and resilient olive grove in the context
of climate change and the environmental challenges of this century.
These benefits are transformed into economic and social impacts for farmers and rural communities.
Hrameche et al. [2] and Martín-García [3] mention that the main economic benefits for farmers include:
• Promotion of crop diversification and the production of other products, such as honey, nuts, or
vegetables, generating new sources of income for farmers.
• Less dependence on inputs, such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides, reduces production costs
and increases the profitability of olive groves.
• Olive oil produced under agroecological practices can access higher-value markets, such as
organic or fair-trade markets, obtaining better prices.
• Agroecological systems are more resilient to price fluctuations and extreme weather events,
providing greater economic stability for farmers.
Table 1
Agroecological practices in olive groves
Dimensions Practices Description
Minimal or no tillage Minimizes soil erosion, improves its structure and biological activity,
Soil management and sequesters carbon [4].
Plant cover Conserves soil moisture controls weeds and erosion, and provides
organic matter [5].
Organic amendments Compost, manure or other organic materials improve soil fertility and
structure.
Efficient irrigation Techniques such as drip irrigation or remote sensing optimize the use
Water management of water, a scarce resource in many olive grove regions [6].
Rainwater harvesting Harnessing rainwater for irrigation reduces dependence on external
sources and pressure on aquifers [6].
Mulching Covering the soil with organic materials such as straw or bark helps
conserve moisture and reduce evaporation [7].
Biologic control Use natural enemies, such as parasitoids.
Plague and illness
Integrated pest manage- Combines biological, cultural, and chemical methods selectively to
management
ment minimize environmental impact [8].
Promotion of biodiversity Planting trees, wildflowers, and other elements in the olive grove at-
tracts natural enemies and creates a more balanced ecosystem [9]
Intercropping Combining the olive tree with other crops, such as legumes or cereals,
Biodiversity diversify production and benefits the soil.
Habitat conservation Preserving natural areas within the olive grove provide shelter and food
for various organisms [10].
Pollinator management Encourage the presence of bees and other pollinators for the reproduc-
tion of some olive tree varieties [11].
Galt et al. [12] and Bezner Kerr et al. [13] mention several social benefits for rural communities,
highlighting:
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Arnaldo Vergara-Romero et al. CEUR Workshop Proceedings 65–73
• Agroecology requires more labor, especially for tasks such as manual weed control and harvesting,
generating employment opportunities in rural areas.
• Agroecological practices contribute to a healthier and safer environment, which improves the
quality of life for people living in olive-growing communities.
• Agroecology promotes collaboration among farmers, community organizations, and knowledge
sharing, strengthening the social fabric in rural areas.
• Olive groves represent an important cultural heritage in many regions, and agroecological
practices contribute to their conservation.
2. Materials and Methods
This research employs a quantitative methodological approach based on the evaluation of different
practices by a panel of experts using interval and ordinal scales. The research has a descriptive focus, as
its purpose is to describe agroecological practices in terms of sustainability, profitability, and technical
difficulty. The success of the Delphi method is linked to the quality and experience of the selected
experts. The following describes how the experts were chosen for this research.
A Knowledge Resource Nomination Worksheet (KRNW) was developed to identify and select experts.
This tool aimed to categorize experts based on a detailed description of their experience and contribution
to the analysis. Experts were sought whose areas of specialization converged with the disciplines of
agronomy, agricultural, economics, and rural sociology [14].
This categorization allows the selection of a diverse and qualified group of experts to participate
in the study. To establish contact with the selected experts, a multi-channel communication strategy
was implemented. This strategy included face-to-face meetings, phone calls, and institutional emails.
The communications focused on informing the experts about the research objectives, the Delphi
methodology, and the importance of their participation in the study [14]. In this way, 26 experts
confirmed their availability and willingness to collaborate with the proposed research.
A structured questionnaire was employed for data collection to evaluate the environmental and
socioeconomic benefits of various agricultural practices in olive groves. This questionnaire investigates
a variety of key sustainability indicators.
The first part of the questionnaire assessed the impact of each practice on biodiversity conservation
and enhancement, soil structure and quality improvement, climate change mitigation, water pollution
minimization, and cultural ecosystem services provision. By gathering data on these diverse aspects,
a comprehensive understanding of the practices’ potential contributions to a sustainable olive grove
management system can be achieved. Each expert was asked to allocate 100 points across each column,
representing each criterion, thus quantifying the contribution of each practice to each criterion.
The second part of the questionnaire evaluates the impact of practice adoption on the profitability
of farms using a three-point ordinal scale, ranging from minimal to high. Following the evaluation of
the impact on profitability, the technical feasibility and challenges associated with implementing the
practices are analyzed using the same ordinal scale. A pilot test was conducted with a small group of
experts to validate the questionnaire, ensuring the clarity and validity of the instrument.
The quantitative data will be grouped in an Excel spreadsheet to apply descriptive statistical techniques
and evaluate the degree of association between the data. Before analysis, the database was cleaned
to remove erroneous values. Data processing was carried out using the RStudio [15] and JASP [16]
software packages. These same programs were used to generate graphs and tables that illustrate the
findings and facilitate the understanding of the object of study.
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data, including measures of central tendency and
dispersion. The results of these analyses will allow for the identification of patterns in the data, the
evaluation of the relationship between variables, and a comprehensive understanding of the research
topic.
The consensus value is calculated using the interquartile range: the number of experts who rated
within this range is evaluated and then divided by the total number of experts. Equation 1 expresses
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Arnaldo Vergara-Romero et al. CEUR Workshop Proceedings 65–73
the calculation of the interquartile range.
3(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1
𝐼𝐶𝑅 = − (1)
4 4
Equation 2 expresses the consensus calculation
𝑁 𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝐶𝑅
(2)
𝑇 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁 𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑠
The weighting is obtained from the average of the importance of each criterion multiplied by the
assessment of each practice in each criterion. Equation 3 shows the calculation of a normalized
weighting.
∑︀𝑛
𝑥𝑖 𝑥1 𝑤1 + 𝑥2 𝑤2 + 𝑥3 𝑤3 + ... + 𝑥𝑛 𝑤𝑛
𝑥¯ = ∑︀𝑛𝑖=1 = (3)
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 + 𝑤3 + ... + 𝑤𝑛
𝑥𝑖 is the average of the experts’ evaluations in each practice.
𝑤𝑖 is the average of the weight assigned by the experts to the criteria.
3. Results
Table 2 presents a summary of the experts’ evaluations of the benefits of various agroecological
practices in olive cultivation systems. The table highlights practices that received scores on all five
criteria, indicating the potential to contribute to a variety of positive farm outcomes.
Table 2
Scores for agroecological practices
Agroecological practices Rating Ranking
Cover crops 24,21 1
Crop residues 12,42 2
Minimal mechanical alteration of the soil 8,75 4
Agricultural operations following contour lines 4,63 9
Fertilize according to soil deficiencies and crop needs 6,61 7
Organic fertilizer 8,55 5
Integrated Pest Management strategy (IPM) 5,49 8
Precision agriculture technologies 4,28 10
Multifunctional Margins (MFM) and Buffer zones 10,22 3
Retention structures to reduce the impact of erosion and runoff 7,13 6
Prevention of contamination by phytosanitary products 3,99 11
Optimized waste management 3,53 12
The classification shows the importance of the use of cover crops, covers from pruning remains,
multifunctional margins and buffer strips, and minimal soil alteration, which ensures positions within
the top four positions, respectively. In fifth place in the ranking is the use of organic fertilizer, a practice
that received favorable evaluations for its contributions to the evaluated criteria.
The use of cover crops receives the highest assessment for its capacity to increase the diversity of
flora and fauna as confirmed by Bretzel et al. [17], since this practice implemented in agroecosystems
generates ecological niches that increase the availability of food for wildlife. Likewise, it helps to
increase soil organic matter [18], improves its structure, and reduces erosion [19].
Additionally, it prevents leaching of nutrients and filtering contaminants from runoff water, mini-
mizing water pollution. Durán Zuazo & Rodríguez Pleguezuelo [20] confirm that this type of practice
prevents erosion caused by rain and wind, keeping the top layer of soil in place and reducing the loss of
nutrients and organic matter. Similarly, Ma et al. [21] mention that vegetation acts as a natural barrier,
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Arnaldo Vergara-Romero et al. CEUR Workshop Proceedings 65–73
reducing the speed of water flow and allowing sediments and contaminants to settle on the ground
before reaching water bodies.
The use of covers with pruning rest has a positive impact on soil fertility, water retention capacity,
the yield of successive crops, efficiency in water use and weed suppression [18] and on soil carbon
storage, contributing to climate change mitigation efforts [22].
The implementation of functional margins was valued positively for its contribution to the creation
of habitats for a wide range of species, the regulation of microclimate, and the pollination of crops.
Brittain et al. [23] through the “Operation Pollinator” program demonstrated how margins are beneficial
for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. Also, it benefits the preservation of traditional landscapes,
providing habitat for wildlife [24] and supporting cultural practices such as bird watching and nature
walks [25].
Minimal soil mechanical alteration was positioned as one of the best practices for preserving soil
structure, promoting beneficial soil microorganisms, and improving overall soil quality [26].
3.1. Evaluation of Economic Impact and Technical Difficulty
The second section of the questionnaire delves into evaluating the economic impact of adopting specific
practices on farm profitability. The findings reveal that the use of pruning residue covers, minimal
soil disturbance, performing agricultural operations following contour lines, balanced fertilization,
implementing IPM strategies, and optimizing waste management have a null or minimal impact on
profitability. These practices are considered economically viable and do not alter the overall profitability
of farms (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Impact on profitability
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The use of organic fertilizers and pesticide contamination prevention practices were evaluated as
agroecological practices with an economic impact ranging from null or minimal to reduced. These
practices offer economic benefits while minimizing environmental harm. The implementation of cover
crops, multifunctional margins, and buffer strips was assessed, and it was determined that the economic
impact can range from reduced to moderate or high. These practices offer potential economic gains but
may require initial investments and careful management.
The employment of precision agriculture technologies and the construction of erosion control
structures were perceived as practices with a moderate or high impact on profitability. These practices
may involve significant upfront costs but can lead to long-term economic benefits through improved
efficiency, resource optimization, and reduced environmental damage.
The findings reveal that half of the experts consider the use of cover crops to be of low difficulty,
while the use of pruning residue covers is perceived as of minimal difficulty. Similarly, minimal soil
disturbance is perceived as of minimal difficulty by 54% of the experts and of low difficulty by 42%,
while the implementation of agricultural operations following contour lines is considered of minimal
difficulty.
Regarding balanced fertilization and the implementation of multifunctional margins, these practices
were evaluated as of low difficulty, while optimized waste management was perceived as of minimal
difficulty. Additionally, the use of precision agriculture technologies and the construction of containment
structures are considered by experts to be of moderate or high difficulty.
The use of organic fertilization and pesticide contamination prevention received difficulty ratings
ranging from minimal to low, while Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was evaluated as having a
difficulty ranging from low to moderate or high (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Technical difficulty of adoption.
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4. Conclusions
The presented research emphasizes the remarkable efficacy of certain agroecological practices in
enhancing sustainability and improving the technical feasibility of olive cultivation. These practices,
including the utilization of cover crops, pruning residue covers, minimal soil disturbance, and the
implementation of multifunctional margins and buffer strips, have garnered high scores in various
evaluation criteria.
Cover crops emerged as the most favorable agroecological practice across all five evaluation criteria,
demonstrating their comprehensive benefits for olive cultivation systems. This finding aligns with the
positive perceptions of over two-thirds of the experts, who indicated that the economic impact of this
practice on olive farms is either null or minimal. Additionally, experts rated the technical difficulty of
implementing cover crops as minimal or low, suggesting their practical viability and ease of adoption.
Covered with pruning remains secured the second position among the most favorable agroecological
practices, achieving a prominent standing in the overall ranking. This practice received high scores
for its benefits in preventing soil erosion and mitigating climate change. Moreover, experts rated the
economic impact of vegetation covers favorably, indicating a minimal or null reduction in profitability
and a minimal or low technical difficulty of adoption.
The implementation of multifunctional margins stood out as a beneficial practice for enhancing
biodiversity and providing cultural ecosystem services, securing third place in the ranking. This practice
was perceived by 40% of the experts as a practice with an economic impact ranging from moderate
to high. Despite this perceived impact, 80% of the experts rated the technical difficulty of adopting
multifunctional margins as minimal or low.
Minimal mechanical soil disturbance emerged as one of the five most favorable agroecological
practices for preventing soil erosion and mitigating climate change. This practice aligns with the
performance of pruning residue covers, as experts perceived its economic impact as minimal or null
and its ease of adoption as minimal or low.
The research will be limited to the evaluation of the most common agroecological practices in olive
groves in Spain. Not all existing agroecological practices can be evaluated nor can all environmental,
economic, and social aspects of their adoption or implementation be analyzed in depth.
These findings contribute to the ongoing discussion regarding the suitability of agroecological
practices in olive cultivation for enhancing the sustainability and technical viability of the crop. Among
the proposed future research lines is the analysis of the implementation of the best practices in three
olive cultivation subsystems: (a) Traditional rainfed olive groves; (b) Irrigated olive groves; and (c)
Olive groves with steep slopes. Additionally, the study of factors influencing the adoption of these
agroecological practices should be addressed, including the risk aversion of producers, the structural
limitations of the farms, aspects related to business management, and administrative difficulties.
5. Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, the Andalusian Department
of Economy and Knowledge, and the European Regional Development Fund through the research project
FARMPERFORM (Grant PID2022-136239OB-I00).
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