=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3834/paper27
|storemode=property
|title=Exploring the Evolution of Gender Power Difference through the Omegaverse Trope on AO3 Fanfiction
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3834/paper27.pdf
|volume=Vol-3834
|authors=Xiaoyan Yang,Federio Pianzola
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/chr/YangP24
}}
==Exploring the Evolution of Gender Power Difference through the Omegaverse Trope on AO3 Fanfiction==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3834/paper27.pdf
Exploring the Evolution of Gender Power Difference
through the Omegaverse Trope on AO3 Fanfiction⋆
Xiaoyan Yang1,∗ , Federico Pianzola1
1
Centre for Language and Cognition, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Abstract
This study examines the evolution of gender power differences within the Omegaverse trope on the
Archive of Our Own (AO3) fanfiction platform. The Omegaverse, a fan created trope defined by dis-
tinct secondary gender categories (Alpha, Beta, Omega), provides a lens to explore and critique gender
dynamics. We used connotation frames and the Riveter NLP pipeline to measure power dynamics in
Omegaverse slash relationships between characters. Our corpus includes English stories across eight
prominent fandoms, including Japanese anime, K-pop, Western TV series, and Western films. Our find-
ings show Alphas generally exhibit higher power scores than Omegas, consistent with the trope’s con-
structs, but with notable variance between fandoms, while most fandoms exhibit more within-group
consensus when more fans start writing. This research offers insights into how fan communities evolve
and challenge traditional power structures.
Keywords
Gender studies, cultural analytics, fanfiction, media studies
1. Introduction
Across a variety of cultural fields, researchers have identified pervasive gender inequality, char-
acterized by the underrepresentation and marginalization of women. This disparity is evident
both in who is able to produce cultural works and who is depicted within them [12]. Gender,
conceptualized as a societal construct, has historically played a pivotal role in shaping the nar-
ratives and themes of literary works. In contemporary literary scholarship, the examination of
gender biases and representations emerged as a critical area of study [1].
Within literary genres, fanfiction stands out as a highly popular storytelling form, exten-
sively accumulating a large number of stories on online platforms fueled by the development
of digital social reading [16]. Its roots trace back to the Star Trek fanzines of the 1960s and
1970s, with the advent of the internet in the 1990s drastically altering its production, dissemi-
nation, and consumption [10]. These fan-generated stories often venture into uncharted and
sometimes unconventional directions [17], reflecting contemporary popular culture’s gender
perceptions.
One distinctive feature of fanfiction is using original characters or settings, derived from
TV shows, books, movies, or other media to create new stories [11]. Within this realm, slash
fanfiction allows for a more diversified adaptation and creation of characters’ genders and
CHR 2024: Computational Humanities Research Conference, December 4–6, 2024, Aarhus, Denmark
∗
Corresponding author.
£ xiaoyan.yang@rug.nl (X. Yang); f.pianzola@rug.nl (F. Pianzola)
ȉ 0000-0001-6102-8603 (X. Yang); 0000-0001-6634-121X (F. Pianzola)
© 2024 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
906
CEUR
ceur-ws.org
Workshop ISSN 1613-0073
Proceedings
gender hierarchies compared to other literary genres. Slash fanfiction notably involves gender
transformations and shifts in sexual orientation. It is a sub-genre characterized by narratives
most commonly authored by women [5] that explore male-on-male sexual and/or romantic
relationships. By queering heterosexual male characters, slash fanfiction provides an avenue
to scrutinize the canonical notions of gender, identity, and sexuality. The focus of this study is
on the gender-based difference of social and sexual power in the Omegaverse, a special trope
developed by fanfiction authors, and how these hierarchies evolve across different popular
fandoms.
2. The Omegaverse: A Unique Trope to Explore Gender
Dynamics
The Omegaverse, or Alpha/Beta/Omega (ABO) Dynamics, offers an inventive approach to tack-
ling gender stereotyping and associated prejudices [8]. Inspired by ”wolf pack hierarchies”,
this fictional framework introduces a speculative social system where characters are divided
into three biologically-driven categories: alpha, beta, and omega, to intensify social and sexual
dynamics [4]. Within this universe, alphas typically hold dominant roles, omegas are often
depicted as submissive, and betas occupy a middle ground. This genre explicitly problematizes
consent, power imbalances, and biological determinism, to challenge social norms around re-
lationships and autonomy, which makes it a speculative fantasy space for exploring themes of
social power hierarchies and biology [6].
The concept of secondary genders such as Alpha, Beta, and Omega allows characters of the
primary gender, both female or male, to become leaders like Alphas, diminishing the opposition
between the primary genders of men and women to some extent. Nonetheless, the design
of this worldview with secondary genders also emphasizes that biology ostensibly dictates
sexual and social roles, and it introduces gender hierarchy into queer fanfiction more freely and
exaggeratedly [18][19][22]. According to Entrikin [7], the Omegaverse encompasses two main
behavioral scripts: the dominant script, which is aggressive and proactive, and the submissive
script, embodying a more passive gatekeeping role. These scripts often mirror ’heterosexual’
dynamics with the physical and social power of Alphas and the outwardly subservient and
physically weaker stance of Omegas [18][19].
Yet, scholars also note that the gender hierarchies and notions depicted in Omegaverse fanfic-
tion narratives contrast with the foundational worldviews of the Omegaverse setting. Popova
[18] argues that rather than uncritically adopting gendered sexual scripts and socially con-
structed power differentials, Omegaverse stories are employed by their creators and audiences
as a critical tool. These narratives problematize power and consent, offering avenues for nego-
tiating meaningful, consensual intimate relationships within broader abusive social structures.
Goldmann [8] also stated that this alternative social structure, while initially appearing to reaf-
firm Western gender stereotypes and traditional, sexist narratives, is critically reinterpreted by
fanfiction authors. They creatively contest and deconstruct the classification of characters as
Alphas, Betas, or Omegas, challenging the stereotypes associated with these categories. Par-
ticularly, the stereotypical expectations associated with Alphas and Omegas often do not align
with the portrayal of the protagonists. These characters are depicted as either aware of such
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reductive perspectives and intentionally distancing themselves or not fitting the conventional
physical expectations of Alphas or Omegas. In doing so, authors intentionally address these
dynamics, challenging stereotypes and biases as their characters navigate the challenges posed
by societal norms.
If there exists a characteristic of reflection and correction within the Omegaverse trope, then
the formation of this characteristic should also be the result of continuous evolution and iter-
ation. Yet current research focused on the gender hierarchy represented in the Omegaverse
has not started from the development trajectory of Omegaverse fanfiction, to comb through
whether there are dynamic changes and overall trends in the portrayal of gender hierarchy as
it rapidly develops and attracts an increasing audience.
Therefore, the focus of this study is on the gender-based hierarchies of social and sexual
power in the Omegaverse trope and how these hierarchies evolve and interact with the trope’s
increasing popularity. The primary research question is: Are there gender-based power differ-
ences that are frequently occurring along with the Omegaverse trope?
To explore this question, we address two subquestions: (1) How do the power dynamics of
Alpha, Beta, and Omega characters in slash relationships differ across various fandoms? Is
there a significant difference between top fandoms? (2) Do these dynamics evolve over time?
3. Corpus: Omegaverse on AO3
We utilize the GOLEM database [15], which contains 8 million stories and related metadata
from the Archive of Our Own (AO3) platform, spanning from 2000 to September 2022. Users
on AO3 can upload their works and categorize them using an extensive tag system based on
fandoms, genre, emotions, and other criteria. Fanfiction within the Omegaverse setting can
be identified through the ”Alpha/Beta/Omega Dynamics” tag, which authors use to signal this
trope. Additionally, a corresponding tag, ”Non-Traditional Alpha/Beta/Omega Dynamics”, of-
ten signifies stories that subvert traditional gender roles within the Omegaverse framework,
with the number of such fanfictions being approximately one-tenth of those with the tradi-
tional Omegaverse tag. Since 67% of works tagged with ”Non-Traditional Alpha/Beta/Omega
Dynamics” also carry the ”Alpha/Beta/Omega Dynamics” tag, and given AO3’s tag-based cat-
egorization system, our study focuses on the most conventional Omegaverse label, ”Alpha/Be-
ta/Omega Dynamics”to keep consistency. Using this tag, we selected 92,124 fanfictions con-
taining the Omegaverse trope, which account for 1.15% of all stories collected in the GOLEM
database 1 .
As illustrated in Figure 1A, there has been a notable upward trend in the publication of
Omegaverse trope fanfiction since 2010. Considering the simultaneous expansion of the AO3
platform, we utilized the annual total number of published fanfiction on AO3 to reveal the
growth rate of the ABO trope relative to the overall fanfiction production (Figure 1B). What
stands out is not only the increasing number of ABO stories but also their expanding proportion
within the entire fanfiction corpus over time. This indicates a growing interest in the ABO
theme among AO3 users.
1
Due to copyright restrictions, the story content cannot be made publicly available . The corpus metadata, our code,
and computation results can be accessed at https://github.com/GOLEM-lab/Omegaverse_Study/
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(A) (B)
Figure 1: (A) Number of ABO Trope Fanfictions Published per Year (2010.1-2022.9). (B) ABO Trope
Fanfiction Growth Rate Adjusted per Year (2010.1-2022.9).
M/M pairings, which depict romantic relationships between male characters, constitute a
significant portion of AO3, accounting for 46% of the total. This trend is even more pronounced
within the Omegaverse, where such stories represent 70% of the total. Furthermore, 4.23% of
all fandoms on AO3 include at least one Omegaverse fanfiction. Fandoms dominated by male
leading characters, such as the Japanese Shounen anime My Hero Academia, the Korean pop
boy band BTS, and Marvel universe, are more prevalent in Omegaverse fanfiction compared to
the general AO3 trend.
Following this, based on observations of popular fandoms and corresponding slash relation-
ships within the Omegaverse corpus, we selected eight slash relationships from the top 15 in
the original Omegaverse corpus to build a narrower corpus. These relationships originate from
Japanese anime, K-pop, Western TV series, and Western film universes. These eight slash rela-
tionships account for 12.8% of all ABO stories in the AO3 platform and span the timeline from
2010 to 2022, representing different stages of popularity. This selection balances Eastern and
Western cultural industries, as well as different types of media, ensuring a relatively robust
sample of the overall creation trends within the Omegaverse trope.
4. Methods: Gender Power Difference Measurement
Within the domain of computational linguistics, exploring gender dynamics typically involves
delving into the descriptive language surrounding persons, focusing particularly on the behav-
iors/verbs or nouns/adjectives employed in their representation [14].
We first analyze the proportions of verbs and adjectives in the corpus, with results showing
a higher proportion of verbs. Consequently, for this initial analysis, we choose to focus on
verbs to measure gender power differences. Then we leverage information from online fan
encyclopedia to enhance the accuracy of character coreference resolution. Next, we identify
the secondary genders of characters and calculate the gender power differences between Alpha
and Omega characters in slash relationships. Finally, we critically analyze the computational
result together with close reading and human evaluation.
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Using SpaCy2 , we conducted a statistical analysis of the parts-of-speech (POS) distribution
within the Omegaverse corpus. We compared this distribution to a benchmark of CMU Movie
Summary Corpus [3] since connotation framework was set for studying gender dynamic in
movie summary scripts (Table 1). Our analysis revealed that both corpora have a high propor-
tion of verbs, though the Omegaverse corpus exhibiting a slightly lower frequency of verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs, and a higher frequency of pronouns compared to the CMU Movie
Summary Corpus. The shared high proportion of verb usage makes verb-based gender power
measurement methods suitable for analyzing online fanfiction.
Table 1
POS Distribution of the Omegaverse Corpus
Verbs (%) Nouns (%) Adjectives (%) Adverbs (%) Pronouns (%)
Omegaverse Corpus 27.12 27.48 10.11 11.23 24.07
CMU Movie Summary 28.93 36.87 10.35 7.39 16.46
We initially employ the Python library Riveter [2] and its power-agency verb lexicon to
quantify gender hierarchy within fanfiction texts. Subsequently, we use close reading methods
to verify the quality of the measurement results. Riveter is a natural language processing
(NLP) pipeline designed to analyze the dynamics of power and agency between entities in
texts, including characters, thereby testing whether fanfiction’s transformative potential can
be substantiated with quantitative methods.
To quantify the levels of agency and power associated with each character in the texts, Riv-
eter leverages the theoretical foundation of Connotation Frames and the power and agency
lexicons developed by Sap et al. [21]. Connotation Frames, pioneered by Rashkin et al. [20],
introduced a model for assessing the connotations of verb predicates concerning an AGENT
and THEME’s value, sentiment, and effects, integrating these frames into the analysis of in-
terpersonal dynamics within texts. This approach models the power differential between the
AGENT and THEME, alongside the general agency of the AGENT of the verb predicate.
Sap et al. [21] enriched this framework with a lexicon of verbs, each assigned scores based
on their usage frequency in relevant corpora, such as New York Times articles and movie script
corpora, for sentiment and power and agency frames respectively. This evolving interest in
Connotation Frames among researchers, especially within cultural analytics and digital hu-
manities, shows their utility in exploring the framing of interpersonal dynamics across diverse
datasets and inquiries [13][9]. Ultimately, considering the use of English lexicons in the Riv-
eter pipeline and the characteristics of fanfiction writing, we selected English-language stories
within the Omegaverse Corpus, with word counts ranging from 200 to 10,000 words, as the
final corpus for measuring gender power differences.
To identify gender hierarchy in literature, it’s crucial to accurately recognize the gender of
fictional characters within the text. However, in Omegaverse fanfiction, our focus on gender
hierarchy revolves around the secondary genders of Alpha, Beta, and Omega. Additionally,
since M/M slash relationships dominate the Omegaverse trope, with male characters assigned
2
https://spacy.io/
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different secondary genders, traditional pronoun and name-based gender classification meth-
ods are ineffective.
Instead, we organize characters based on explicit secondary gender attributes provided by au-
thors in metadata tags. Using this information, we could detect the secondary gender attributes
of corresponding characters. Then, we employ the Riveter pipeline to perform named entity
recognition and coreference resolution to calculate social dynamic scores for the two relevant
characters involved in slash relationships in fanfiction. To enhance recognition comprehen-
siveness, we utilize character names and aliases retrieved from the wiki website fandom.net,
as well as character-related names and nicknames appearing in fanfiction metadata, as the ba-
sis for named entity recognition. After running the Riveter pipeline to get the power score
per character, we delete the stories with extreme scores where only one or a few verbs have
been calculated. Then we identify the secondary gender of characters and compute the gender
power difference of the alpha character and omega character.
5. Results
Before analyzing the results, we close read a sample of 40 stories to assess the effectiveness
of the verb lexicon-based method. This selection balanced time and gender power score vari-
ations, including five stories from extremely positive and negative representatives and earlier
period’s representatives. Two human evaluators independently read and assessed each story.
They then discussed their assessments to reach a consensus. Given the fragmented nature of
fanfiction narratives and the broad concept of gender power differences, we used a simplified
three-category classification: positive difference, no significant difference, and negative differ-
ence.
As shown in Table 2, after excluding one fanfiction that used Omegaverse-related tags but did
not adhere to the trope’s conventions, 27 out of 39 stories had human judgments that aligned
with Riveter’s results, yielding an accuracy of 70%. In three stories where Riveter indicated a
negative gender hierarchy, close reading revealed that despite more active descriptions of the
Omega character, the actual narrative still portrayed the Alpha as dominant and the Omega as
passive.
Table 2
Human Evaluation of Riveter Gender Power Difference Computation Results. (When human evaluation
and Riveter result are greater than zero, it indicates a positive gender power difference, meaning Alpha
character’s power score is higher than Omega character’s. When they are less than zero, it indicates
a negative gender power difference, meaning Omega character’s power score is higher than Alpha
character’s. A human evaluation result of ”Equal” signifies that evaluators uniformly consider the
power of Alpha character and Omega character to be relatively equal.)
Riveter Result
Human Evaluation >0 <0
>0 15 3
Equal 5 4
<0 0 7
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Additionally, we evaluated Riveter’s verb-based recognition accuracy, finding it could accu-
rately capture most actions of the characters. However, due to limitations in coreference reso-
lution, it could not detect finer details of bodily movements, such as ”his arm” and ”his hand.”
Despite these limitations, the manual validation demonstrated a high consistency between the
connotation frames-based gender power difference measurement and human judgment. The
data quality of the Omegaverse corpus was also afÏrmed as reliable.
Consequently, based on these computational results, we analyzed the evolution of gender
power differences across various fandoms within the Omegaverse. The final result based on
3,468 fanfiction works in the Omegaverse corpus is shown in Table 3, and the change over time
is presented in Figure 2.
Table 3
Corpus Statistics
Cluster Slash Rela- Total in English, Alpha/Omega Gender Gender Unique
tionship Omega- word count Riveter Power Dif- Power Dif- Author Rate
verse [200, 10000] Score ference ference Std (%)
Corpus Amount Amount Average
Japan Bakugou 2214 1284 792 0.083850 0.228258 62.75
anime Katsuki /
Midoriya
Izuku
Katsuki Yu- 1006 547 283 0.046665 0.215431 61.48
uri / Victor
Nikiforov
K-pop Jeon 1832 790 499 0.074532 0.188775 74.55
Jungkook /
Park Jimin
Jeon 1545 632 392 0.076218 0.214993 77.30
Jungkook
/ Kim Tae-
hyung | V
Western TV Castiel 2194 1124 771 0.092453 0.245118 46.82
series / Dean
Winchester
Will Gra- 846 462 228 0.285113 0.384073 68.42
ham /
Hannibal
Lecter
Western James 1312 565 284 0.078453 0.218858 69.01
film uni- ”Bucky”
verse Barnes
/ Steve
Rogers
Steve 804 386 220 0.052256 0.248804 65.91
Rogers /
Tony Stark
First, gender power differences of Alpha and Omega characters in slash relationships are
broadly exhibited across different fandoms. Despite many stories in each fandom receiving
negative gender power difference scores and close readings confirming the subversion of tra-
ditional hierarchies and promotion of gender equality, for all fandoms the gender power differ-
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Figure 2: Gender Power Difference Evolution of Omegaverse Corpus over Time
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ence scores approximate normal distribution with a mean above zero. This means that most of
the times authors use the Omegaverse trope consistently with its definition. Moreover, West-
ern TV and movie-related fandoms generally have higher scores than Japan Anime and K-pop-
related fandoms. The fanfiction stories about the Will Graham/Hannibal Lecter pairing from
Hannibal show the highest average and variance in gender power differences, likely due to
the series’ inherent violent and extreme elements. In contrast, pairings like Katsuki Yuuri/Vic-
tor Nikiforov from Yuri on Ice and Jeon Jungkook/Park Jimin from BTS, both of which have
the smallest mean and variance in gender power differences, highlight how specific fandom
characteristics influence these dynamics. Yuri on Ice being a female-oriented romantic anime,
shows stable and low gender power variance, echoing the original plot. Similarly, BTS pair-
ings, despite high activity in recent years, maintain low mean and variance scores, reflecting a
consistent portrayal within the K-pop fanfiction community.
This leads to the second common phenomenon we noted: most fandoms exhibit more within-
group consensus when more fans start writing. Initially, when only a few people created
Omegaverse-themed stories, there was a higher average gender power difference. As more fans
began writing, the average gender power difference significantly decreased, and the variance
correspondingly narrowed. The fanfiction published in 2010 with the Castiel/Dean Winchester
pairing from Supernatural is the earliest Omegaverse story in this corpus, showing a signifi-
cantly higher-than-average gender power difference score, which close reading supports. Simi-
lar patterns occur in My Hero Academia. However, as more stories are created, the two pairings
from Marvel Cinematic Universe demonstrate stable low gender power differences and low vari-
ance during the period between 2019 and 2020 when there was a active fanfiction creation (for
example, for the Steve/Tony pairing, there were 37 stories in 2019 and 63 in 2020, compared to
just 22 stories over the four years from 2012 to 2015). Similarly, Bakugou/Midoriya and two
K-pop-related pairings share a similar pattern from 2019 to 2022, indicating that when a new
trope becomes widely popular, authors and readers form a consensus over time, leading to
consistent portrayal patterns within these fan communities. Initially, fans creating the Omega-
verse trope may prefer dramatic gender hierarchy settings, but as the trope gains popularity,
more authors use it as an opportunity for reflection. Additionally, the periodic fluctuations ob-
served in Western TV series and film universes suggest that the mean and variance of gender
power differences may vary cyclically, potentially influenced by changes in fan engagement
and preference developments within fan communities.
Overall, these findings underscore the widespread presence and relative stability of gender
power differences in Omegaverse fanfiction. This study highlights the dynamic interplay be-
tween fan engagement and gender power portrayal in these narratives, offering insights into
how fan communities evolve and challenge traditional power structures.
6. Limitations and Future Works
Our study uses an Omegaverse corpus that includes only English short to medium-length fanfic-
tion from the top fandoms, in which multiple fanfiction works may written by the same authors.
Additionally, by comparing gender power difference computation results across different fan-
doms, we observed a possible interaction between the original plot and power dynamics. This
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suggests that the original plot and narrative genre can bias the power dynamics, as seen in the
Hannibal and Yuri on Ice examples.
In the next step, we plan to create a corpus with more variety in terms of fanfiction language,
fandom plots, and themes, while controlling for author uniqueness. Additionally, we will also
incorporate more nuanced linguistic features, such as adjectives and adverbs, to enhance our
analysis. Tags potentially related to gender dynamics, such as ”Non-Traditional Alpha/Be-
ta/Omega Dynamics” will also be systematically integrated into the evaluation process.
Acknowledgments
This work is part of the Graphs and Ontologies for Literary Evolution Models (GOLEM) project,
a 5-year (2023-2027) research project funded by the European Commission (ERC StG). We
would like to thank Junyao Zhang for participating in the evaluation procedure.
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