Sanitation and toilets are of paramount importance for tourists, playing a pivotal role in ensuring a safe, comfortable, and enjoyable travel experience. Access to clean and well-maintained restroom facilities is not only a matter of convenience but also a fundamental aspect of public health and tourism sustainability. Inadequate sanitation can lead to health risks and discomfort for tourists, potentially impacting their overall travel satisfaction. Moreover, the availability of proper sanitation facilities influences a tourist's perception of a destination's hospitality and infrastructure. This paper scopes out current research themes which include how toilets affect the tourism experience, the appropriate location of toilets for tourists' use and good practice of design, as well as highlighting instances where toilets have become a tourist attraction. We note how technology can be used to address sanitation issues and waste water management and finish with suggested future research topics.
supply driven, such as sustainable sanitation solutions for tourism destinations, accessible tourism and inclusive toilet facilities, public health and hygiene in tourism toilets, waste management in high-traffic tourism areas, toilet design and architecture in tourism, and smart toilet technology and enhanced tourist experiences. Other topics are more demand-focused: toilet facilities’ impact on destination choice, tourists’ perceptions of sanitary facilities, cultural differences in toilet etiquette and tourism, and behavioral studies and toilet usage in tourist sites. Lastly, there are issues that pertain to both the demand and supply side of tourism, namely, promoting hygiene education in tourism and the economic impact of toilet infrastructure in tourism. This scoping study suggests several possible streams of research. These topics offer a range of perspectives to explore the relationship between toilets and tourism, touching on sustainability, accessibility, cultural considerations, public health, technology, design, and economics. To date, there has not been coverage of this vital topic.
The construction of toilet facilities is perceived as a symbol of regional development [
Sufficient and good quality toilet facilities impact tourists’ destination choice, destination image
and the tourist experience. Destinations recognize the importance of clean toilet facilities.
Singapore launched a Happy Toilet program in 2003 while Malaysia instituted a toilet
revolution in 2006 to address the poor hygiene and dirty facilities [
International tourists often complain about the condition of public toilets, especially in
developing countries, where there may not be the resources to provide the upkeep of these
facilities. Sunarsa and Andiani [10] examine the perceptions of tourists regarding the
cleanliness of public toilets in Bali. Sampling ten users across twenty different public toilets in
the destination, they find that tourists find the toilets dirty and smelly with no soap or toilet
paper available. On a 5-point Likert scale the average rating was 2.18 out of 5 across a range of
attributes covering cleanliness, lighting, odor, functionality and signage. Along similar lines, [
It was estimated that an international tourist uses a public toilet eight times, on average, on their
visit to China. Multiplied by the number of international tourists to China, this equates to 1.07
billion toilet-stops in 2015 [
Sun, Wang and Niu [
Higher standard eco-toilets can benefit the environment by efficiently treating the wastes and producing less footprint [17]. Technology can be used to reduce tourists’ waste. Ali, Lintang Lestari and Dyasthi Putri [18] show how the design of an eco-friendly toilet in conjunction with recycling cycle of water, rain water, and wastewater treatment facility can result in using only 20% of the current water usage.
While the bodily function of using the toilet is considered taboo in many cultures, several entrepreneurial restaurant owners have opened toilet-themed restaurants [19]. Lonely Planet, the guidebook producer, has published a coffee-table book showing more than 100 toilets from around the world with incredible views, luxury lavatories and outstanding outhouses. The International Toilet Tourism Awards were established so that tourists could nominate the most thoughtfully designed public toilets available to tourists [20]. Toilets can also be a tourist attraction in and of themselves. In Foshan, China, artist Shu Yong spend two months installing public art, in the form of a fountain built out of 10,000 recycled toilets. Originally designed for the 2009 Foshan Pottery and Porcelain Festival, it is now a permanent piece of public art [21]. Other toilet-based tourism attractions include the Sulabh International Museum of Toilets in India [22], the oldest toilet in Paris [23], George Washington’s toilet in Virginia [24], also in the USA is Barney Smith’s Toilet Seat Art Museum in Dallas [25], while the UK has both London Loo Tours [26] and the National Poo Museum located on the Isle of Wight [27].
Technology can be used to achieve health benefits for tourists and residents alike. Various technological innovations can elevate sanitation standards. Advancements in sensor technology enable real-time monitoring of toilet usage, aiding maintenance and ensuring cleanliness [28]. Smart toilets equipped with automated cleaning mechanisms reduce water wastage and enhance hygiene. Furthermore, decentralized sanitation systems, such as self-contained off-grid toilets, offer solutions for remote areas lacking traditional infrastructure [29]. These systems can be particularly useful in rural areas. The integration of renewable energy sources into sanitation systems not only reduces carbon footprint but also ensures uninterrupted service in resourcescarce regions, potentially contributing to sustainable rural tourism development. Additionally, data-driven approaches enable efficient waste management and resource recovery from human waste, contributing to circular economies [18]. In essence, sanitation and toilet facilities are not mere amenities but vital components that significantly contribute to the overall appeal and success of a tourist destination, making them indispensable for the tourism industry.
Given the scant existing research on this important topic, we propose the following areas of potential research: Policymakers destination management organizations would be particularly interested in sustainable sanitation solutions for tourism destinations, where researchers would investigate innovative and eco-friendly toilet technologies that can be implemented in popular tourist destinations to minimize water usage, reduce environmental impact, and promote sustainable tourism. Additionally, they would be interested in feedback on public health and hygiene in tourism toilets to examine the hygiene practices and sanitation measures in place in public toilets of tourist areas, assessing their effectiveness in preventing the spread of diseases and promoting the health of both tourists and local communities.
Waste management in high-traffic tourism areas is an important area for research, where studies could be conducted to study the challenges and solutions associated with managing and disposing of waste generated by tourism activities, with a focus on the proper handling of toilet waste in crowded tourist spots.
Given the important characteristics of toilet design, further research is needed to analyze the architectural and design considerations that go into creating aesthetically pleasing, functional, and culturally appropriate toilet facilities in tourist destinations, contributing to the overall ambience of the place. Related to this is smart toilet technology which might enhance tourist experiences. Researchers could explore the integration of smart technologies, such as Internet of Things (IoT) sensors and data analytics, in public toilets to enhance the tourist experience by providing real-time information about toilet availability, cleanliness, and other amenities [30]. From the demand side, tourist perceptions of sanitary facilities is a topic to be explored to understand how tourists perceive the quality and cleanliness of public toilets in different tourism sites, and analyze the impact of these perceptions on their overall travel experience. Further, cross-cultural research could be undertaken concerning differences in toilet etiquette among tourists. Varying cultural norms and etiquettes surrounding toilet use impact tourists’ experiences and behaviors, and strategies could be examined to bridge these cultural gaps for a more inclusive tourism environment.
The accessibility of toilet facilities in tourist destinations for people with disabilities is an important topic to investigate [31]. Research could uncover strategies to improve inclusivity and accommodate diverse needs in tourism infrastructure while it would be important to test the awareness of hygiene education among different tourism stakeholders, in particular to understand the importance of proper hygiene practices in public toilets, which can contribute to the overall cleanliness of tourist destinations.
As noted above, toilet facilities’ impact on destination choice and the availability and quality of toilet facilities can influence tourists’ decisions when choosing travel destinations. More research is needed in this area when can then be used to estimate the potential economic implications for regions that prioritize superior sanitation infrastructure, increased tourist satisfaction, longer stays, and positive word-of-mouth recommendations.
Lastly, behavioral studies on toilet usage at tourist sites will shed light on how tourist behavior, such as toilet usage patterns and habits, is influenced by factors like crowd density, availability of facilities, and cultural norms. One question which might arise is: at a macro-level, do the countries with more international tourists have a higher level of public toilets? To address this question, we use World Bank data for international tourist arrivals, as well as population, and GDP per capita. The database for the number of public toilets is obtained from Toilet Finder which lists the number of public toilets by country. [17] Luo, Y., Mou, Y., Wang, Z., Su, Z., & Qin, Y. (2020). Scenario-based planning for a dynamic tourism system with carbon footprint analysis: A case study of Xingwen Global Geopark, China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 254, 119999. [18] Ali, F., Lintang Lestari, D., & Dyasthi Putri, M. (2020). Eco-friendly toilet for sustainable wastewater management in tourism area. The 1st JESSD Symposium: International Symposium of Earth, Energy, Environmental Science and Sustainable Development 2020, 211, 01009. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202021101009. [19] Pantazi, C. (2014). 5 of the world's craziest toilet-themed restaurants. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.thrillist.com/travel/nation/toilet-themed-restaurant-in-the-worldthe-attendant-in-london-modern-toilet-in-taipei [20] Ability Magazine. (2018). International Toilet Tourism. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://abilitymagazine.com/international-toilet-tourism/ [21] Patowary, K. (2014). Toilet Bowl Waterfall in Foshan, China. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.amusingplanet.com/2014/02/toilet-bowl-waterfall-in-foshan-china.html [22] Pathak, B. (2023). Sulabh International Museum. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.sulabhtoiletmuseum.org/ [23] Worsham, K. (2021). A Tour of Jean Sans Peur's Toilet. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.flushwash.org/post/a-tour-of-jean-sans-peur-s-toilets [24] Worshan, K. (2021). Checking Out Washington's Toilets. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.flushwash.org/post/checking-out-washington-s-toilets [25] RoadsideAmerica.com. (2023). Barney Smith's Toilet Seat Art Museum. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.roadsideamerica.com/story/6166 [26] Cole-Wilkin, R. (2023). London Loo Tours. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.lootours.com/ [27] The National Poo Museum. (2023). The National Poo Museum. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://poomuseum.org/our-museum [28] Raendran, V., Ramasamy, R. K., Rosdi, I. S., Ab Razak, R., & Fauzi, N. M. (2020). IoT technology for facilities management: Understanding end user perception of the smart toilet. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, 11(5), 353-359. [29] Hiolski, E. (2019). The Toilet Gets a Makeover. ACS Central Science, 5(8), 1303-1306. https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.9b00769 [30] Yang, Q., Li, D., & Tan, Y. (2020). Design of Intelligent Public Restrooms in Tourist Cities. In P.-L. P. Rau, Cross-Cultural Design. User Experience of Products, Services, and Intelligent Environments Cham. [31] Darcy, S. (2012). (Dis)Embodied Air Travel Experiences: Disability, Discrimination and the Affect of a Discontinuous Air Travel Chain. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 19(1), 91-101.