=Paper=
{{Paper
|id=Vol-3927/paper6
|storemode=property
|title=From Distraction to Reaction: Exploring Self-Regulated Learning and Off-Task Thoughts in Online Learning from Videos
|pdfUrl=https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3927/paper6.pdf
|volume=Vol-3927
|authors=Daniel Ebbert
|dblpUrl=https://dblp.org/rec/conf/ectel/Ebbert24
}}
==From Distraction to Reaction: Exploring Self-Regulated Learning and Off-Task Thoughts in Online Learning from Videos==
https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3927/paper6.pdf
From Distraction to Reaction: Exploring Self-Regulated
Learning and Off-Task Thoughts in Online Learning from
Videos
Daniel Ebbert1,*
1
Centre for Change and Complexity in Learning, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
Abstract
Self-regulated learning (SRL) plays a crucial role in online learning success. However, students inevitably
encounter off-task thoughts (mind wandering or task-related interference) that can disrupt the learning
process. Although SRL and off-task thoughts have been studied independently, their interaction has not
been extensively explored. This research project investigates the relationship between SRL and off-task
thoughts in the context of learning from videos. A multi-method approach will be employed, comprising a
conceptual paper, meta-analyses, case study, two experiments, and comparative analysis. The conceptual
paper will present a model illustrating how off-task thoughts may trigger reactive self-regulation during
learning. The meta-analyses will synthesize findings on the occurrence and impact of task-related
interference and off-task thoughts. A naturalistic case study and two controlled experiments will collect
self-caught thought reports during actual and simulated video learning, respectively. The case study will
explore whether students rewind videos after mind wandering. The experiments will test whether the
anticipation of learning activities at pauses in the video leads to increased awareness of off-task thoughts
and whether rewinding a video following off-task thoughts balances out the negative effect of mind
wandering. Comparing the case study and both experiment results will assess the generalizability of
findings across contexts. A comparative analysis will also examine the association between SRL and off-
task thought frequency in naturalistic and controlled settings. This research project aims to provide
theoretical and empirical insights into the interaction between off-task thoughts and SRL when learning
from videos.
Keywords
self-regulated learning, mind wandering, metacognition, meta-awareness, off-task thought1
1. Introduction and task-unrelated thoughts are called task-unrelated
thoughts (TUT), while stimulus-independent and task-
Learners often find their minds drifting to unrelated related thoughts are known as task-related interference
matters when striving to acquire knowledge. Research (TRI).
indicates that during educational pursuits, students A recent meta-analysis revealed that TUTs occur
experience off-task thoughts approximately 30% of the about 30% of the time during educational activities and
time [1]. As such thoughts are unavoidable, it is crucial negatively correlate with learning outcomes [1].
to consider their impact when examining the learning Although a comparable meta-analysis on the frequency
process. Consequently, off-task thoughts can hinder the and impact of TRI on learning has not been conducted,
acquisition of knowledge [2]. How learners adjust their some studies suggest that TRI may have a neutral or
learning strategies to accommodate current even positive effect on learning outcomes [5], [6], [7].
circumstances, including distractions, falls under the Nevertheless, learners encounter off-task thoughts
domain of self-regulated learning [3]. Distractions like during the learning process and must adapt their
off-task thoughts can manifest during learning, learning strategies accordingly.
necessitating learners to adapt to these disruptions in Given the detrimental effect of mind wandering on
real-time. learning outcomes, various laboratory studies have
aimed to reduce the frequency of mind wandering
2. Background among learners. In the context of learning from videos,
this has been achieved through the use of interpolated
2.1. Off-Task Thoughts testing [5], [7], [8]. Other learning activities, such as
Off-task thoughts can be categorized based on stimulus- generative activities like self-explanations, have
dependency and task-relatedness [4]. Within the scope positively influenced learning outcomes [9]. However,
of this research project, the focus lies on stimulus- the impact of these activities on the frequency and type
independent thoughts, which can be further classified as of off-task thoughts remains unknown. It is also possible
task-unrelated or task-related. Stimulus- independent
∗
Corresponding author. © 2025 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under
Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
daniel.ebbert@mymail.unisa.edu.au (Daniel Ebbert)
0000-0003-3666-7205 (Daniel Ebbert)
CEUR
ceur-ws.org
Workshop ISSN 1613-0073
Proceedings
for students to become aware of their mind wandering, regulated learning, theories on off-task thoughts, and
a phenomenon known as meta-awareness. the concept of metacognition, which will be presented
Meta-awareness refers to the conscious recognition in a conceptual paper. A key aspect of this model posits
of one's thoughts [10]. This concept is rooted in that a self-regulated learner's reaction to the realization
metacognition and is a form of metacognitive of being off-task is contingent upon the type of off-task
monitoring [11]. When students engage in thought they experienced. While the frequency and
metacognitive monitoring, they actively reflect on their relationship with learning outcomes have been
recent thoughts, potentially becoming aware of any off- established for TUT [1], this information is lacking for
task thoughts. The information gained from this self- TRI and the overarching category of off-task thoughts
reflection can then be utilized to adjust their thoughts (TUT + TRI), which motivates the first two research
through actions designed to refocus their attention on questions.
the task at hand. This process is known as metacognitive
control. Students continue studying until they engage in • RQ1: What is the frequency of TRI, and how
metacognitive monitoring once more, which may are these thoughts associated with learning
trigger further metacognitive control. This cyclical outcomes?
metacognitive monitoring and control process forms the • RQ2: What is the frequency of off-task
foundation of self-regulated learning [12]. thoughts, and how are these thoughts
associated with learning outcomes?
2.2. Self-regulated Learning
The developed model will provide a theoretical
Self-regulated learning provides a framework for
foundation, which the meta-analyses will enhance.
understanding the emotional, motivational, and
Collectively, these components will elucidate the
cognitive aspects of learning [3]. This research project is
frequency with which students encounter each type of
underpinned by the COPES model of self-regulated
off-task thought and, consequently, the need to respond
learning [13], as it elucidates the role of metacognition
to such off-task thoughts. To investigate these dynamics
in self-regulated learning and how students adapt their
further and evaluate their practical implications, the
learning process to the current task. According to Winne
context of video-based learning has been selected as the
and Hadwin [13], self-regulated learning occurs across
focus of subsequent studies.
four interconnected stages. These stages are task
definition, goal setting and planning, enacting study 3.2. Exploring self-regulated learning
tactics and strategies, and metacognitively adaptive
and off-task thoughts during
studying. During the third stage, as students implement
study tactics and strategies, they frequently alternate
video learning
between cognition and metacognitive monitoring [14]. The theoretical assumption of mutual influence between
Students will likely recognize their off-task thoughts self-regulated learning and off-task thoughts led to the
during this stage and modify their learning behavior overarching question, "What is the 2-way relationship
based on this realization. This research project explicitly between self-regulated learning and off-task thoughts in
explores this self-regulated learning phase, as no video-based learning?" The overarching research
existing model currently describes how off-task question has been broken down into specific research
thoughts influence self-regulated learning. questions.
3. Research Approach • RQ3: How does self-regulated learning
influence off-task thoughts when learning
This research project consists of two parts. The first part from a video?
is theory development, complemented by a meta-
• RQ4: How does self-explanation during video
analysis. Together, these inform the second part,
watching influence off-task thoughts
exploring self-regulated learning and off-task thoughts
compared to interpolated testing?
while learning from videos.
• RQ5: Does rewinding a video after off-task
thoughts offset the negative effect of off-task
3.1. Theory Development and Meta-
thoughts on learning outcomes?
Analysis
• RQ6: Is the relationship between self-
By synthesizing the existing literature, a model will be regulated learning and off-task thought
constructed to illustrate how off-task thoughts influence frequency consistent across study designs?
the learning process and how students might respond
upon realizing they have experienced off-task thoughts. The fact that most research on off-task thoughts and
This model will draw upon the COPES model of self- learning has been conducted in controlled laboratory
settings motivates RQ3. The observation that attempts 4.3. Case Study
to reduce off-task thoughts during video-based learning
have primarily relied on interpolated testing has The third research question will be examined through a
inspired RQ4. The lack of research investigating case study, which aims to overcome a significant
whether a learner's response to their off-task thoughts limitation of many studies on the interaction between
can balance out the negative effects of off-task thoughts off-task thoughts and learning, namely their reliance on
motivates RQ5. RQ6 is motivated by apprehensions controlled laboratory environments. In the context of
regarding the generalizability of findings obtained from learning from videos, this limitation meant that learners
laboratory-based research in naturalistic settings. were not allowed to react to realizing their off-task
thoughts, even if they desired to. This study addresses
this issue by requesting students to watch course videos
4. Methodology and report their off-task thoughts as they become aware
A multi-method approach will address the aim and of them. Unlike other studies on off-task thoughts,
research questions, comprising a conceptual paper, students in this case study can interact with the video
meta-analyses, a case study, and two experiments. The player while learning. This interaction allows them to
data collected from the case study and both experiments react to the realization of their off-task thoughts. The
will be combined to analyze and compare the frequency resulting trace data, consisting of thought reports and
of off-task thoughts and assess the potential impact of video interaction data, can be analyzed using learning
self-regulated learning on these thoughts. In the case analytics techniques such as sequential pattern mining
study and experiments, participants will be asked to and multilevel modelling to model and understand
provide self-caught free-text thought reports and metacognitive processes. In addition to measuring
complete subscales from the self-regulation for learning students' self-caught off-task thoughts, participants will
online (SRL-O) questionnaire [15]. be asked to complete SRL-O subscales. The findings
from this study will provide insights into the frequency
4.1. Conceptual Paper of off-task thoughts in a naturalistic setting and whether
students react to the realization of being off-task by, for
The theoretical connection between self-regulated
example, rewinding the video.
learning and off-task thoughts will be explored by
developing a conceptual paper. This paper will build
upon the COPES model of self-regulated learning,
4.4. First Experiment
theories on off-task thoughts and learning, and The fourth research question will be addressed through
metacognition. By synthesizing the existing literature, a an experiment to compare the effect of interpolated
model will be constructed to illustrate how off-task testing and self-explanation writing on the self-reported
thoughts influence the learning process and how frequency of off-task thoughts. The experiment will
students might respond upon realizing they have include three conditions: two experimental conditions
experienced off-task thoughts. (interpolated testing and self-explanations) and a control
group. Participants will complete SRL-O subscales and a
4.2. Meta-Analyses pre-test, watch a video while reporting off-task thoughts
(self-caught), engage in a filler task, and then take a post-
Research questions one and two will be addressed
test. The results from this study will provide insights
through meta-analyses. A systematic search and
into which learning activity (interpolated testing or self-
screening of the existing literature on TRI will be
explanations) leads to better learning outcomes and
conducted. Subsequently, the frequency and effect size
whether the frequency of off-task thought realization
of the relationship between TRI and learning outcomes
differs between the two experimental conditions and the
will be extracted and included in the meta-analysis.
control group.
Furthermore, the TUT frequencies and effect sizes
on learning outcomes will be extracted from the
identified sources and combined with the TRI data from
4.5. Second Experiment
off-task thought frequencies and effect sizes, which can The fifth research question will be investigated through
be used for a meta-analysis. an experiment examining whether students' rewinding
This information will shed light on the prevalence of the video they are learning from following their off-task
TRI and off-task thoughts and the magnitude of their thoughts balances out the negative effects of off-task
impact on learning outcomes. thoughts. The experiment will include three conditions:
two experimental conditions (optional rewind following
off-task thought, mandatory rewind following off-task
thoughts) and a control group.
The participants for the study will be recruited using 7. Contribution
Prolific, and the study will be conducted online.
Participants will complete an SRL questionnaire, be The primary objective of this research project is to
introduced to the concept of off-task thought, and, investigate how off-task thoughts influence students'
depending on conditions, will be instructed to rewind learning processes during online video-based learning.
the wind they are learning from following their off-task The developed model will provide a theoretical
thoughts. While watching the video, participants will foundation enriched by the meta-analyses on TUT, TRI,
provide self-caught thought reports. After watching the and off-task thoughts. These components will
video, they will answer a knowledge test. collectively describe the frequency with which students
Data analysis will involve comparing the groups on encounter each type of off-task thought and,
their knowledge test performance to assess whether consequently, the need to react to such occurrences. The
video rewinding following off-task thoughts offsets the case study will then explore if and how students respond
negative effect of off-task thoughts. when they become aware of their off-task thoughts. One
possible reaction students might undertake is to modify
4.6. Comparison of Off-Task Thought the learning task by incorporating interactive learning
Frequency Across Study Designs activities. The first experiment will test which learning
activities influence the frequency of off-task thoughts.
Once the case study and both experiments are The second experiment will test if rewinding a video
completed, research question six can be addressed. The following off-task thoughts balanced out the negative
data from the three studies will be combined. By effect of off-task thoughts. The comparative analysis
merging the data, the frequency and types of off-task will examine how the frequency of reported off-task
thoughts can be compared between the studies based on thoughts in an experimental setting can be compared to
the participants' SRL-O questionnaire scores. This a naturalistic setting.
combined data can provide insights into students' self- In summary, this research will contribute to the
regulation in different contexts. They may reveal existing literature by elucidating the interaction
whether students with similar scores on the SRL-O between off-task thoughts and self-regulated learning,
subscales exhibit a similar or different frequency of self- how students might influence the frequency of their off-
caught off-task thoughts across study designs. task thoughts, and how their reaction following off-task
thoughts could influence learning outcomes.
5. Status Furthermore, this research provides evidence of learning
The current status of this research project is that the and expands learning theories, which can be used to
conceptual paper is being prepared for submission. The inform the development of interventions to enhance
meta-analysis and the case study have been written, learning outcomes.
submitted, and are under review. The experiment results
were published in the proceedings of the Nineteenth Acknowledgements
European Conference on Technology Enhanced Professor Shane Dawson, Associate Professor Negin
Learning [16]. The data collection for the second Mirriahi, Associate Professor Srecko Joksimovic, and Dr
experiment is in progress. Natasha Wilson , all from the University of South
Australia, supervise the research project.
6. Ethical Considerations The conceptual paper has been written in
Ethical considerations have been prioritized in this collaboration with Caitlin Mills from the University of
research project. The Human Research Ethics Minnesota and Phil Winne from Simon Fraser
Committee of the University of South Australia has University. The meta-analyses have been conducted
granted ethical approval for the case study and the first with Andrew Zamecnik from the University of South
experiment. The Institutional Review Board of the Australia. The second experiment will be conducted in
University of Minnesota has approved the second collaboration with Caitlin Mills and Aaron Wong from
experiment. the University of Minnesota.
To protect participants' privacy, personal Daniel Ebbert is supported by an Australian
information collected during the case study will be de- Government Research Training Program international
identified prior to data analysis, and only anonymous (RTPi) Scholarship.
data will be gathered for the experiment. Only data from
informed consent participants will be utilized in the case References
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