Agricultural supply chains face increasing challenges in security, transparency and trust, particularly as global demand for food traceability and safety continues to rise. This paper proposes a blockchain-based decentralized authentication system tailored for smart agricultural supply chains. Using Hyperledger Fabric's permissioned blockchain and smart contracts, the proposed framework provides secure, scalable, and tamperproof authentication for all participants and IoT devices involved in the supply chain. The system ensures that each participant (farmers, suppliers, logistics providers, retailers) and IoT device undergoes a robust authentication process before interacting with the blockchain, enabling traceable and secure data sharing without the need for centralized control. Smart contracts automate key operations such as verification of product provenance, quality certification, and payment execution, improving operational eficiency, and reducing the risk of fraud. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed decentralized system significantly enhances security by preventing common attacks such as man-in-the-middle (MITM) and distributed denial of service (DDoS), while maintaining high performance in terms of low latency and scalability. The proposed system ensures the end-to-end traceability of agricultural products, providing consumers with verifiable information on the origin, quality, and certification of the product. This research contributes to a novel approach to improving security, transparency, and scalability in agricultural supply chains using decentralized blockchain authentication.
can compromise the entire supply chain’s integrity.
In recent years, advancements in artificial intelligence
Ensuring global food security hinges on the resilience (AI), particularly in machine learning and deep
learnand eficiency of the agricultural supply chain, which ing, have transformed various fields by ofering
innocurrently grapples with persistent challenges in trans- vative solutions to complex problems. For example,
parency, security, and traceability [1, 2]. With increas- deep learning techniques have been employed for
EEGing consumer demand for sustainably sourced and certi- based brain-computer interface (BCI) systems to
enifed food products, stakeholders in the agriculture indus- hance classification accuracy in neurological
applicatry—including farmers, suppliers, logistics providers, and tions [
To address these challenges, we propose a blockchain- cation, and the security of agricultural supply chains. based decentralized authentication framework that lever- Several advancements in smart grid networks have ages Hyperledger Fabric, a permissioned blockchain, to explored innovative approaches to enhancing security, secure interactions among all participants in the agricul- eficiency, and scalability in distributed energy managetural supply chain [29, 30]. This framework ensures that ment systems [34], [35]. Prior research has investigated each participant—farmers, suppliers, logistics providers, federated learning-based solutions for detecting electricand retailers—and IoT device undergoes a secure authen- ity theft and optimizing power distribution in smart grids tication process before engaging in the supply chain. [36], [37]. Additionally, the integration of multi-agent By utilizing smart contracts, the system automates key systems and decentralized energy trading frameworks functions, including the verification of product prove- has been studied to improve the resilience and interopernance, certification validation, and payment execution ability of modern smart grids [38, 39, 40, 41]. [31, 32, 33]. This decentralized approach eliminates the Recent research has made substantial strides in the need for a central authority, thereby ensuring trust and integration of blockchain and IoT in agricultural supply security in supply chain operations. chains. [42] proposed a novel framework that addresses
The contributions of this paper are as follows. First, we scalability issues in earlier works by implementing a hipropose a decentralized blockchain-based authentication erarchical blockchain structure designed specifically for framework designed to enhance security and traceability agricultural IoT devices. Their approach demonstrated a in smart agriculture supply chains. Second, we develop 60% reduction in transaction validation time compared to and implement smart contracts that automate the veri- traditional blockchain architectures, all while maintainifcation of product provenance, certification validation, ing high security standards. [43] built on [44] work and and payment settlement, thereby reducing operational developed an advanced blockchain-IoT system that inineficiencies and minimizing human intervention. Third, corporates edge computing to handle large data streams we assess the security and scalability of the proposed sys- from agricultural sensors. Their system introduced a tem through simulations, demonstrating its resilience novel consensus mechanism optimized for agricultural against cyberattacks such as man-in-the-middle (MITM) supply chains, reducing energy consumption by 45% and distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks. Finally, while improving transaction throughput. While these we conduct a performance analysis of the proposed sys- advancements address scalability and eficiency, they do tem, highlighting its low latency and high-performance not tackle the critical need for simultaneous authenticapabilities, ensuring scalability across diverse agricul- cation of both IoT devices and human participants in tural supply chains. agricultural supply chains.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. To address the authentication challenges, [45] proSection 2 reviews related work in the field of blockchain posed a lightweight two-factor continuous authenticafor supply chain security in agriculture. Section 3 in- tion protocol based on PUF and location. Their solution troduces the proposed system architecture and details leverages the properties of PUF to resist physical attacks, the underlying blockchain implementation. Section 4 uses simple cryptographic operations such as XORs and describes the simulation setup used for evaluation. Sec- hash functions to ensure security, and reduces resource tion 5 presents the experimental results, while Section consumption through continuous authentication. This 6 provides a comparative analysis of the proposed sys- work builds on the limitations of previous authentication tem with existing approaches. Section 7 discusses the protocol [46] Further enhancing decentralized authenimplications and key findings of the study. Section 8 out- tication, [47] developed a context-aware authentication lines the limitations of the study and suggests directions framework that considers environmental factors unique for future work. Finally, Section 9 concludes the paper, to agricultural settings. Their system demonstrated 99.7% summarizing the main contributions and outcomes. accuracy in detecting compromised devices while requiring 30% less computational resources than prior solutions. However, the computational overhead introduced 2. Related Works by these solutions still limits their practical application in resource-constrained agricultural environments.
The application of blockchain technology in supply Recent work has also focused on addressing security chains has been widely explored, particularly in enhanc- concerns in agricultural supply chains. [48, 49] developed ing transparency, traceability, and security. The integra- a comprehensive security framework that combines artition of blockchain with Internet of Things (IoT) devices ifcial intelligence with blockchain to detect and prevent has gained significant attention as a solution to address sophisticated attacks. Their system successfully identi
42–54 The Data Collection Layer is responsible for capturing real-time data from various IoT devices deployed across the agricultural supply chain. This layer includes sensors that monitor environmental conditions, track product movement, and ensure quality assurance throughout the supply chain. The layer is designed to handle large volumes of data while minimizing latency and bandwidth usage (see Figure2). ifed 98% of attempted man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks while maintaining performance. Expanding on [50], [51] proposed a scalable security architecture employing dynamic access control mechanisms and quantum-resistant encryption. Their framework efectively balances security and performance, addressing scalability limitations in previous approaches while maintaining robust security measures.
Additionally, the latest research integrates blockchain with other emerging technologies to further enhance agricultural supply chains. [52] combined blockchain with digital twins to create virtual representations of agricultural supply chains. This approach enabled realtime monitoring and predictive analytics, while ensuring data integrity through blockchain verification. [ 53] introduced a framework that integrates blockchain with artificial intelligence and machine learning to optimize supply chain operations. Their system utilizes smart contracts to automate decision-making processes, ensuring transparency and traceability while addressing several limitations identified in earlier works.
Building on these advancements, our study introduces a novel dual-layer authentication mechanism within Hyperledger Fabric that integrates IoT devices and human participants seamlessly. The framework enforces rolebased access control through intelligent smart contracts and optimizes computational resources with an innovative consensus design. By implementing lightweight security protocols specifically tailored for agricultural environments, our solution reduces processing overhead while maintaining accuracy in threat detection for MITM and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks.
blockchain-based agricultural supply chains, we propose a novel dual-layer authentication mechanism within 3.1.1. IoT Devices and Sensors Hyperledger Fabric [29]. This mechanism integrates both IoT devices and human participants, ensuring se- IoT devices, such as environmental sensors, RFID tags, cure interactions and access control across the entire and GPS trackers, are deployed across farms, storage fasupply chain. The system architecture leverages intel- cilities, and distribution channels. These devices collect ligent smart contracts to enforce role-based access con- data on environmental factors (e.g., temperature, humidtrol (RBAC) and utilizes a consensus design to optimize ity), product quality (e.g., ripeness, freshness), and the computational resources while maintaining robust se- movement of goods through the supply chain [56]. This curity [54]. The architecture aims to reduce processing data forms the foundation for product traceability and overhead, particularly for mitigating Man-In-The-Middle quality assurance. (MITM) and Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks [55], without compromising threat detection ac- 3.1.2. Edge Devices curacy.
The proposed system architecture consists of three main layers: the Data Collection Layer, the Blockchain Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer plays a crucial role in ensuring the seamless integration of IoT
ducing the volume of data transmitted to the blockchain. These devices perform essential data filtering, normalization, and encryption tasks, ensuring that only relevant, secure information is sent to the blockchain [57]. By reducing network congestion and processing load, edge devices help optimize system performance, particularly in bandwidth-constrained agricultural environments.
To secure the data transmitted between IoT devices and the blockchain, encryption protocols such as AES-256 are employed [58]. This ensures that the sensitive information from the IoT devices, including product certifications and logistics data, is protected from unauthorized access during transmission. 3.2. Blockchain Layer The Blockchain Layer is the backbone of the proposed system, providing decentralized management and secure transaction recording. Hyperledger Fabric, a permissioned blockchain platform, is utilized to ensure that only authorized participants can interact with the blockchain [29]. This layer incorporates a dual-layer authentication mechanism that provides secure authentication for both IoT devices and human participants, ensuring that all transactions are authorized and verifiable (see Figure3).
IoT devices and human participants into the blockchain network. Each IoT device is assigned a unique identity, which is verified using a lightweight cryptographic protocol to authenticate devices before allowing them to transmit data. Human participants, such as farmers, distributors, and retailers, are authenticated through rolebased access control (RBAC) mechanisms, ensuring that each participant can only access and perform actions within their designated scope.
rity and performance. The system uses a lightweight Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus, where pre-approved validators (such as certifying agencies and trusted regulatory bodies) confirm the validity of transactions. This mechanism minimizes processing overhead compared to traditional consensus models like Proof of Work (PoW), making it suitable for agricultural environments with limited computational resources [59].
Role-based access control (RBAC) is enforced through intelligent smart contracts. These smart contracts are designed to automatically assign permissions based on the roles of the participants in the supply chain [54]. For example, farmers can register product details, distributors can verify product quality, and consumers can access product provenance data. The system ensures that each participant only interacts with the data relevant to their role, enhancing security and minimizing unauthorized access. 3.3. Application Layer The Application Layer provides the interfaces through which users interact with the blockchain system. This layer includes decentralized applications (DApps) tailored to the needs of diferent stakeholders in the agricultural supply chain, such as farmers, distributors, retailers, auditors, and consumers (see Figure 4).
crops, including planting schedules, pesticide usage, and harvest times. The DApp allows them to directly interact with the blockchain, ensuring that their data is securely recorded and verified by the system.
ment of products through the supply chain, monitor storage conditions, and verify product certifications. The application provides real-time insights into the status of shipments, enabling them to ensure product quality and compliance with regulatory standards.
Consumers can access a mobile DApp to scan product QR codes and view detailed provenance information. The application provides transparent, verifiable data about the product’s journey, including environmental conditions during transportation and any quality certifications. This enhances consumer trust and empowers them to make informed purchasing decisions.
Regulatory bodies and auditors use specialized tools to monitor compliance with industry standards. These tools allow them to verify certifications, track product movements, and detect any irregularities or fraud. The immutable nature of blockchain ensures that all data is tamper-proof and auditable, facilitating eficient regulatory oversight.
To evaluate the performance of the proposed blockchainbased decentralized authentication framework in a smart agriculture supply chain, we conducted a series of simulations using a realistic supply chain model. The primary focus of the simulation is to assess the system’s eficiency, scalability, security, and ability to handle real-time data from IoT devices while maintaining end-to-end traceability and authentication (see Figure 5). 4.1. Simulation Environment
supply chain from farm production to retail distribution. We simulated multiple stakeholders, including farmers, distributors, retailers, and consumers, interacting through a permissioned blockchain network powered by Hyperledger Fabric (see Figure 6). The following tools and platforms were used to build the simulation environment: • Hyperledger Fabric: This permissioned blockchain framework was used for simulating the decentralized authentication system and implementing smart contracts for automating supply chain operations. • MATLAB/Simulink or AnyLogic: These tools were used for modeling the interactions among various participants in the supply chain and simulating real-time data flows from IoT devices. This included environmental sensor data, product tracking, and quality monitoring information. • IoT Simulation Platform: A virtual IoT environment was created to simulate data generated from sensors deployed in farms, distribution centers, and retail locations. This data was integrated with the blockchain network to trigger smart contract execution and record key events in the supply chain. • Performance Monitoring Tools: Tools such as Hyperledger Caliper were used to measure the performance of the blockchain system, focusing on transaction throughput, latency, and network scalability. 4.2. Simulation Parameters The following parameters were defined to replicate a realworld smart agriculture supply chain and assess the impact of decentralized authentication on its performance (as showing in Figure 7): • Participants: The simulation includes 50 farmers, 20 distributors, 30 retailers, and 10 regulatory bodies, each acting as a peer node in the blockchain network. Consumers interact with the system through decentralized applications (DApps) to verify product provenance. • IoT Devices: Each farm and distribution center are equipped with multiple IoT sensors for monitoring environmental conditions, product quality, and location. The simulation models 200 IoT sensors that continuously generate data, which is transmitted to edge devices and eventually recorded on the blockchain. • Transaction Types: Diferent types of transactions are simulated, including: – Data recording: IoT devices push environmental and product quality data to the blockchain. – Product transfers: Products are transferred from one participant to another (from farmers to distributors). – Certification verification: Regulatory bodies verify product certifications such as organic and non-GMO labels. • Payment execution: Smart contracts trigger payment settlements based on predefined conditions. 4.3. Key Performance Metrics
• Transaction Latency: The time it takes to validate a transaction and add it to the blockchain. Lower latency is critical for real-time applications where IoT devices constantly generate data. • Throughput: The number of transactions that can be processed per second by the blockchain network. High throughput indicates that the system can handle large volumes of data generated by IoT devices. • Scalability: The system’s ability to maintain performance (latency and throughput) as the number of participants, IoT devices, and transactions increases. • Energy Consumption: The total energy consumed by the blockchain network, particularly during transaction validation. This is crucial for ensuring the system’s environmental sustainability, especially in agriculture. • Energy Consumption: The total energy consumed by the blockchain network, particularly during transaction validation. This is crucial for ensuring the system’s environmental sustainability, especially in agriculture. • Security Resilience: The system’s ability to prevent and mitigate common attacks such as manin-the-middle (MITM), distributed denial of service (DDoS), and unauthorized access by unregistered participants or IoT devices. 4.4. Transaction Receipt
system had minimal impact on latency, with authentication checks completed within 500 milliseconds, indicating that the integration of security protocols did not impede the speed of transaction processing (see Figure 9.a.).
The PoA consensus mechanism ensures timely processing of large-scale data in agriculture, where quick decisions based on sensor data can be critical for crop management and supply chain optimization. 5.2. Throughput and accountability in blockchain operations. The key elements of the transaction receipt are as follows:
The scalability test of the system showed that it maintained stable performance as the number of transactions increased. When the transaction volume was scaled up to 3,000 transactions per day, the system maintained a stable transaction latency of 3.1 seconds and a throughput of 1,000 TPS. These results indicate that the blockchainbased decentralized authentication framework can handle the growing complexity of smart agriculture supply chains, including increased transaction volume from both IoT sensors and human participants (see Figure 9.c).
The system is capable of supporting agricultural operations of varying scales, from small farms to large, multi-stakeholder supply chains, ensuring its versatility across diferent scenarios.
blockchain-based decentralized authentication system for smart agriculture supply chains demonstrate the system’s performance, scalability, energy eficiency, and security resilience. 5.1. Transaction Latency
Authority (PoA) consensus mechanism facilitated lowlatency transaction validation, with an average latency of 2.3 seconds per transaction. This performance is crucial for ensuring that real-time data generated by IoT sensors, such as environmental or crop health data, is processed and recorded on the blockchain without significant delays. Notably, the decentralized authentication
the Proof of Work (PoW) consensus mechanism, the PoA mechanism resulted in 70% lower energy consumption. This reduced energy footprint is essential for promoting environmentally sustainable practices in agriculture. Furthermore, the adoption of edge devices to process data locally minimized the need for extensive computational resources at the blockchain layer, reducing overall network energy consumption (see Figure 9.d.). 6.1. Transparency and Traceability
The decentralized authentication protocol demonstrated robust resilience against common security threats. Simulated man-in-the-middle (MITM) and distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks were successfully thwarted using a combination of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) for secure communications and role-based access control (RBAC) for managing user permissions. No unauthorized participants or IoT devices were able to inject fraudulent data into the blockchain, ensuring the integrity of the recorded information (see Figure 9.e.).
This high level of security is critical in agriculture, where data authenticity and integrity are paramount for certification, regulatory compliance, and consumer trust. The ability to prevent unauthorized access strengthens the overall reliability of the system.
The performance of the proposed blockchain-based decentralized authentication system was compared against a traditional centralized supply chain management system, focusing on several key factors: transaction throughput, security, data integrity, traceability, and cost eficiency. The comparative results are summarized below: The blockchain network is inherently more secure against tampering or fraud. The Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus mechanism ensures that only trusted validators can approve transactions, thus preventing unauthorized parties from injecting fraudulent data into the system. Further, the integration of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) and role-based access control (RBAC) ofers strong encryption and control over who can access sensitive data. Zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) can be integrated for added privacy protection without compromising the data’s integrity (Figure 10.b).
The system performed exceptionally well against common security attacks like man-in-the-middle (MITM) or DDoS attacks. With the decentralization of the validation process, the system resists attempt to manipulate or compromise data at a central point.
This security framework is critical for preventing data breaches, fraud, and unauthorized modifications to the supply chain data. For example, in agricultural supply chains, securing data regarding pesticides or certifications helps avoid potential fraud or harmful contamination incidents.
In traditional centralized systems, the security of data is reliant on the central authority. While these systems may implement strong encryption and security protocols, they are more vulnerable to attacks, as the central server is a prime target for cyber threats. Moreover, single points of failure can lead to catastrophic breaches if compromised.
The centralized nature makes it easier for malicious actors to disrupt the entire system by attacking the central server or manipulating records before they are finalized. The lack of distributed control makes it harder to ensure continuous integrity, especially in the face of insider threats. 6.3. Transaction Throughput and Latency The blockchain-based system uses PoA, which is a more lightweight consensus mechanism compared to others like Proof of Work (PoW). This allows for faster transaction validation with minimal latency (2-3 seconds per transaction). The throughput of the system reached 1,200 transactions per second (TPS) during simulated real-world conditions, which is suficient for handling high-volume IoT data in agricultural supply chains.
Although the system’s throughput is slightly lower than centralized systems, the decentralized nature does not substantially afect the speed of transactions due to the use of eficient consensus mechanisms.
The PoA consensus mechanism allows the system to handle a significant volume of transactions in real-time, ensuring that IoT sensor data from farms is processed without delay. This is particularly crucial in applications where rapid decision-making is essential, such as monitoring crop health or adjusting irrigation systems based on sensor data.
Centralized systems are often optimized for high throughput, with the central server capable of handling thousands of transactions per second without significant delays. This makes centralized systems attractive for applications where transaction speed is critical and scalability is easily achieved (Figure 10.c).
However, while these systems ofer high throughput, they may become bottlenecked if the server fails or if network congestion occurs. Additionally, the reliance on a single server introduces potential downtime, which can disrupt agricultural operations. 42–54 6.4. Cost Eficiency
ated with the setup and maintenance of the network and the integration of edge computing devices for data processing. However, after the initial investment, the system ofers significant savings in terms of reduced fraud, improved transparency, and elimination of intermediaries. Smart contracts automate manual processes, reducing overhead costs related to human intervention.
The blockchain-based system is cost-efective in the long term, as it reduces the need for centralized intermediaries and provides a self-sustaining mechanism for verification and trust, which minimizes operating costs. Furthermore, the energy eficiency of the PoA mechanism reduces operational costs compared to more energyintensive systems like PoW.
Over time, blockchain’s decentralized structure reduces costs by eliminating intermediaries, lowering the risk of fraud, and reducing administrative overhead in managing and verifying transactions.
Centralized systems are typically cheaper to implement initially, as they don’t require extensive infrastructure or blockchain integration. The system’s operation is also less complex and can be managed by a single central authority.
However, over time, centralized systems may incur higher costs due to maintenance, security breaches, and intermediary fees for validation and verification. The reliance on manual processes and third-party certifications further drives up costs, especially in large-scale agricultural systems. 6.5. Real-World Applicability
suited for applications in smart agriculture, especially in large-scale, multi-stakeholder supply chains. Its ability to provide real-time, immutable records makes it ideal for food safety, quality assurance, and regulatory compliance in industries where transparency and traceability are critical. Security is another vital advantage. The decentral
This is particularly beneficial in agriculture, where ized nature of blockchain, combined with cryptographic provenance, food safety, and certification processes play protocols and the Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus a significant role in consumer trust. By providing detailed, mechanism, ensures robust protection against fraud and verifiable product histories, the blockchain can enhance unauthorized data manipulation. The system’s use of consumer confidence and promote sustainable practices. Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) and role-based access
While centralized systems may be easier to deploy control (RBAC) enhances security by controlling access initially, their lack of transparency and vulnerability to to sensitive data, mitigating insider threats. security risks limit their efectiveness in providing verifi- Performance analysis of the blockchain-based system able, trusted data across multiple stakeholders in a supply shows its capability to handle transaction throughput chain. of 1,200 transactions per second (TPS) with low latency
For industries like agriculture, the lack of transparency of 2-3 seconds per transaction. These metrics are sufand potential for data manipulation could lead to con- ficient for real-time applications in agricultural supply sumer distrust, making centralized systems less suitable chains, such as IoT-based monitoring of crop health and for traceability and verification purposes. environmental conditions.
From a cost perspective, blockchain incurs higher initial expenses due to the need for infrastructure, such 7. Discussion as IoT devices and network setup. However, the system’s long-term cost eficiency, driven by automation through smart contracts and the elimination of intermediaries, ofers significant savings over time. Additionally, PoA’s lower energy requirements compared to consensus mechanisms like Proof of Work (PoW) enhance the sustainability of the system.
This study demonstrates the real-world applicability of blockchain technology in managing large-scale agricultural supply chains involving multiple stakeholders. The system’s ability to provide verifiable, immutable records addresses critical concerns such as food safety, product certification, and sustainable farming practices.
The integration of blockchain-based decentralized authentication into agricultural supply chains represents a transformative approach to addressing long-standing issues of transparency, security, and traceability. This study underscores the advantages of blockchain technology, particularly in enhancing food safety and accountability, over traditional centralized systems. By leveraging a decentralized ledger, the proposed framework ensures reliable, tamper-proof record-keeping, providing stakeholders with greater trust in supply chain operations.
A key strength of the blockchain system lies in its ability to enhance transparency and traceability. The immutable ledger records every transaction in real-time, 8. Conclusion enabling seamless tracking of products from farm to consumer. Unlike centralized systems, which depend on a This study presents a blockchain-based decentralized single authority and are vulnerable to data manipulation, authentication framework aimed at addressing critical blockchain ofers distributed control, reducing the risk challenges in the agricultural supply chain, including of fraud and inaccuracies. This transparency is crucial in transparency, traceability, and security. By leveraging industries like agriculture, where consumer confidence the Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus mechanism and in product safety and quality is paramount. smart contracts, the proposed system ensures real-time
ChatGPT, Grammarly in order to: Grammar and spelling check, Paraphrase and reword. After using this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the publication’s content. authentication and tamper-proof data recording, mitigating issues such as fraud, ineficiency, and lack of trust among stakeholders. Experimental results demonstrate significant improvements in transaction throughput, data integrity, and operational eficiency, making this framework a promising solution for modern smart agriculture. The integration of blockchain technology with IoT devices has further enabled real-time data acquisition and traceability, essential for ensuring product quality and compliance.
Despite its strengths, this study also identifies several limitations, including scalability challenges, high initial costs, integration complexities, and concerns regarding data privacy and regulatory compliance. The scalability of the blockchain framework, particularly in large-scale agricultural environments, remains a challenge as transaction volumes grow. Additionally, the high initial costs of IoT infrastructure and blockchain setup can hinder adoption, particularly for small-scale farmers. Integrating blockchain with existing legacy systems requires significant efort, and ensuring data privacy while maintaining transparency poses regulatory challenges.