The National Academy of Science's report on Human-System Integration in the system development process (NAS HSI report) [12] explains how human needs can be integrated into system design using an incremental systems engineering development process that continually assesses risks at each phase of the system development. This paper suggests how appropriate Human Centred Design (HCD) methods can be selected to mitigate risks to project success.
1. RISKS IN SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT The NAS HSI report points out that the ultimate goal of system development is to produce a system that satisfies the needs of its operational stakeholders (including users, operators, administrators, maintainers and the general public) within acceptable levels of the resources of its development stakeholders (including funders, acquirers, developers and suppliers). Operational stakeholders need a system that is effective, efficient and satisfying [1]. Developing and delivering systems that satisfy all of these success-critical stakeholders usually requires managing a complex set of risks such as usage uncertainties, schedule uncertainties, supply issues, requirements changes, and uncertainties associated with technology maturity and technical design.
Boehm and Lane [4] suggest five principles for managing these risks:
Stakeholder satisficing; identifying the success-critical stakeholders and their value propositions (what is offered at what cost); negotiating a mutually satisfactory set of system requirements, solutions, and plans; and managing proposed changes to preserve a mutually satisfactory outcome.
Incremental growth of system definition and stakeholder commitment: incremental discovery of emergent humansystem requirements and solutions using such methods as prototyping, testing with users, and use of early system capabilities.
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Iterative system development and definition: cyclic refinements of requirements, solutions, and development plans. Such iteration helps projects to learn early and efficiently about operational and performance requirements. Concurrent system definition and development: that includes concurrent engineering of requirements and solutions without waiting for every requirement and subsystem to be defined. Risk management – risk driven activity levels and anchor point milestones. The level of detail of specific products and processes should depend on the level of risk associated with them.
Principles 2, 3 and 4 are consistent with approaches to human centred design, such as recommended in ISO 13407.
The other two principles (Stakeholder satisficing and Risk management) provide a means to determine which human centred design activities and methods are needed in a project to be confident that the final system will be acceptable to the operational stakeholders.
This contrasts with existing approaches to human centred design,
which are commonly based on a one-size-fits-all methodology
(e.g. [5], [
The additional expenditure needed for human centred activities is often difficult to justify because the budget holder for project development usually does not personally gain from longer-term benefits such as increased sales or reduced whole life costs. Project managers are much more likely to be influenced by the risks of not achieving stated project objectives. It is thus useful to recast the potential cost benefits of usability as risk reduction strategies. Table 1 restates the list of cost benefits in [2] as potential project risks.
Looking for advice on which methods to use for human centred design can be bewildering.
Ferré [6] analyzed the methods contained in six popular HCI textbooks and identified 96 categories of HCD techniques. Individual textbooks each contained between 21 and 43 of these categories of technique: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • A: Increased development costs to produce an acceptable system
Not detecting and fixing usability problems early in the development process Increasing the cost of future redesign or radical change of the architecture to make future versions of the product more usable Increased costs due to unnecessary functionality Increased costs due to additional documentation
Product fails
Users cannot find products that they want to purchase Users cannot find additional information (e.g. delivery, return and warranty information) Dissatisfied users do not make repeat purchases Users do not trust the web site (with personal information and to operate correctly) Users do not recommend the web site to others Web site fails to increase sales through other channels Increased support costs
Competitors gain advantage by marketing competitive products or services as easy to use Dissatisfied customers do not make repeat purchases or recommend the product to others Poor ratings for usability in product reviews
Brand damage
Slower learning and poorer retention of information Increased task time and reduced productivity Increased employee errors that have to be corrected later Increased employee errors that impact on the quality of service Increased staff turnover as a result of lower satisfaction and motivation Increased time spent by other staff providing assistance when users encounter difficulties
Increased support and help line costs
Increased costs of training
Increased maintenance costs
Author
Constantine [5]
Hix [7]
Mayhew [10]
Nielsen [
HS.1.2 HS issues in development HS.1.3 HS issues in production and utilization HS.1.4 HS issues in utilization and support HS.1.5 HS issues in retirement
HS.2.1 HS issues in business strategy HS.2.2 HS issues in quality management HS.2.3 HS issues in authorisation and control HS.2.4 Management of HS issues HS.2.5 HF data in trade-off and risk mitigation HS.2.6 User involvement HS.2.7 Human-system integration HS.2.8 Develop and re-use HF data
HS.4.2 Define standard competencies and identify gaps HS.4.3 Design staffing solution and delivery plan
HS.4.4 Evaluate system solutions and obtain feedback
In [
The steps needed to select human-centred methods for an individual project are thus: 1. Identify the success-critical stakeholders. 2. Identify which potential consequences of poor usability affect the success-critical stakeholders. 3. Assess the likelihood and impact of these consequences. 4. Identify which categories of HS activities can reduce the risks. 5. Identify which HCD methods in each category are most cost-effective. The alternative methods should be assessed against criteria such as: • •
To what extent will each possible method address the activities that have been identified as important? How cost effective is each method likely to be, given the time and effort required and constraints such as available skills, access to stakeholders and other users, etc.? The needs for usability evaluation in particular should be judged in the broader context of the relative importance of usability evaluation in relation to other HS activities. For example, when designing and developing for a new context of use, the major risks might be associated with requirements, so that the majority of HCD resources might be devoted to early life cycle activities (which could include evaluation of early concepts and competitive evaluation).
This paper suggests how HCD can be justified as part of systems development and how the most appropriate HCD methods can be selected on a project-by-project basis. This will enable HCD resources to be used most effectively for individual projects. The author would be happy to advise on or support the application of this approach to selecting HCD methods in a real development project. The prerequisites for successfully using this approach include having usability experts in the development team who: • • can convince the project of the specific risks associated with poor usability; have sufficient experience to be able to select the most cost effective HCD methods; and • [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] have the expertise and resources to apply a wide range of different types of methods.
[1] Bevan, N. (1999). Quality in use: meeting user needs for quality, Journal of Systems and Software, 49(1), pp 89-96.
Bevan, N. (2005). Cost benefits framework and case studies.
In [3].
Bias, R.G. & Mayhew, D.J. (eds) (2005). Cost-Justifying Usability: An Update for the Internet Age. Morgan Kaufmann. [10]
Annex A. Examples of methods that can be used to support HS best practices
Best practices for risk mitigation with ISO 18152 clause reference •Identify expected context of use of systems [forthcoming needs, trends and expectations].
•Analyze the system concept [to clarify objectives, their viability and risks]. •Describe the objectives which the user or user organization wants to achieve through use of the system. •Generate design options for each aspect of the system related to its use and its effect on stakeholders. •Produce user-centred solutions for each design option. •Analyze the implications of the context of use. •Present context of use issues to project stakeholders for use in the development or operation of the system. •Identify, specify and produce the infrastructure for the system. •Build required competencies into training and awareness programs. •Define the global numbers, skills and supporting equipment needed to achieve those tasks. •Set and agree the expected behaviour and performance of the system with respect to the user. •Develop an explicit statement of the user requirements for the system. •Analyze the user requirements. •Generate and agree on measurable criteria for the system in its intended context of use. •Generate design options for each aspect of the system related to its use and its effect on stakeholders. •Produce user-centred solutions for each design option. •Design for customization. •Develop simulation or trial implementation of key aspects of the system for the purposes of testing with users. •Distribute functions between the human, machine and organizational elements of the system best able to fulfil each function. •Develop a practical model of the user's work from the requirements, context of use, allocation of function and design constraints for the system. •Produce designs for the user-related elements of the system that take account of the user requirements, context of use and HF data. •Produce a description of how the system will be used. •Decide the goals, behaviours and tasks of the organization [that influence human resources] •Define the global numbers, skills and supporting equipment needed to achieve those tasks. •Identify current tasking/duty HCD methods and techniques -Future workshop -Preliminary field visit -Focus groups -Photo surveys -Simulations of future use environments -In-depth analysis of work and lifestyles -Participatory workshops -Field observations and ethnography -Consult stakeholders -Human factors analysis -Context of use analysis -Success critical stakeholder identification -Field Observations and ethnography -Participatory workshop -Work context analysis -Context of use analysis -Event data analysis -Participatory workshops -Contextual enquiry -Task analysis -Cognitive task analysis -Work context analysis -Investigate required system usability -Usability benchmarking -Heuristic/expert evaluation -Early prototyping & usability evaluation -Develop simulations -Parallel design (tiger testing) -Define the intended context of use including boundaries -Identify staffing requirements and any training or support needed to ensure that users achieve acceptable performance -Scenarios -Personas -Storyboards -Establish performance and satisfaction goals for specific scenarios of use -Define detailed user interface requirements -Prioritize requirements (eg QFD) -Function allocation -Generate design options -Develop prototypes -Develop simulations -Work domain analysis -Task analysis -Participatory design -Workload assessment -Human performance model •Analyze gap between existing and future provision •Identify skill requirements for each role •Predict staff wastage between present and future. •Calculate the available staffing, taking account of working hours, attainable effort and non-availability factor •Identify and allocate the functions to be performed Functional decomposition and allocation of function. •Specify and produce job designs and competence/ skills required to be delivered •Calculate the required number of personnel. •Generate costed options for delivery of training and/or redeployment •Evolve options and constraints into an optimal [training] implementation plan (4.3.5) •Define how users will be re-allocated, dismissed, or transferred to other duties. •Predict staff wastage between present and future. •Calculate the available staffing, taking account of working hours, attainable effort and nonavailability factor. •Compare to define gap and communicate requirement to design of staffing solutions.
See a) System architecting.
See a) System architecting. •Develop a plan to achieve and maintain usability throughout the life of the system. •Identify the specialist skills required and plan how to provide them. •Plan and manage use of HF data to mitigate risks related to HS issues. •Evaluate the current severity of emerging threats to system usability and other HS risks and the effectiveness of mitigation measures. •Take effective mitigation to address risks to system usability. •Identify the HS issues and aspects of the system that require user input. •Define a strategy and plan for user involvement. •Select and use the most effective method to elicit user input. •Customize tools and methods as necessary for particular projects/stages. •Seek and exploit expert guidance and advice on HS issues. •Take account of stakeholder and user issues in acquisition activities. •Implement the HR strategy that gives the organisation a mechanism for implementing and recording lessons learnt •Enable and encourage people and teams to work together to deliver the organization's objectives. •Create capability to meet system requirements in the future (conduct succession planning) •Develop and trial training solution to representative users. •Deliver final training solutions to designated staff according to agreed timetable. •Provide means for user feedback [on human issues]. •Assess the health and well-being risks to the users of the system. •Assess the risks to the community and environment arising from human error in the use of the system. •Evaluate the current severity of emerging threats to system usability and other HS risks and the effectiveness of mitigation measures. •Assess the risks of not involving end users in each evaluation. •Collect user input on the usability of the developing system. •Revise design and safety features using feedback from evaluations. •Plan the evaluation. •Identify and analyze the conditions under which a system is to be tested or otherwise evaluated. •Check that the system is fit for evaluation. •Carry out and analyze the evaluation according to the evaluation plan. •Understand and act on the results of the evaluation. •Test that the system meets the requirements of the users, the tasks and the environment, as defined in its specification. •Assess the extent to which usability criteria and other HS requirements are likely to be met by the proposed design. •Review the system for adherence to applicable human science knowledge, style guides, standards, guidelines, regulations and legislation. -Design for alertness -Plan staffing -Prototyping and usability evaluation -Physical ergonomics -Participatory design -User interface guidelines and standards -Prototyping and usability evaluation -Participatory design -Plan to achieve and maintain usability -Plan use of HSI data to mitigate risks -HSI program risk analysis -Identify HSI issues and aspects of the system requiring user input -Develop a plan for user involvement -Select and use the most effective methods -Customize tools and methods as necessary -Common Industry Format -Risk analysis (process and product) -Obtain user feedback on usability -Use models and simulation -Compare with requirements -Common Industry Format for usability reports -Performance measurement 8. Negotiating commitments a) business case b) requirements 9. Development and evolution 10. Monitoring and control 11. Operations and retirement •Decide how many people are needed to fulfill the strategy and what ranges of competence they need. •Develop and trial training solution to representative users. •Conduct assessments of usability [relating to HR]. •Interpret the findings •Validate the data. •Check that the data are being used. •Contribute to the business case for the system. •Include HS review and sign-off in all reviews and decisions •Analyze the user requirements. •Present these requirements to project stakeholders for use in the development and operation of the system. •Identify any staffing gap and communicate requirement to design of staffing solutions. •Maintain contact with users and the client organization throughout the definition, development and introduction of a system. •Evolve options and constraints into an implementation strategy covering technical, integration, and planning and manning issues. • •Analyze feedback on the system during delivery and inform the organization of emerging issues. •Manage the life cycle plan to address HS issues. •Take effective mitigation to address risks to system usability. •Take account of user input and inform users. •Identify emerging HS issues. •Understand and act on the results of the evaluation. •Produce and promulgate a validated statement of staffing shortfall by number and range of competence. •Analyze feedback on the system during delivery and inform the organization of emerging issues. •Produce personnel strategy. •Review the system for adherence to applicable human science knowledge, style guides, standards, guidelines, regulations and legislation. •Deliver training and other forms of awareness-raising to users and support staff. •Assess the effect of change on the usability of the system. •Review the health and well-being risks to the users of the system. •Review the risks to the community and environment arising from human error in the use of the system. •Take action on issues arising from in-service assessment. •Perform research to refine and consolidate operation and support strategy for the system. •Collect and analyze in-service reports to generate updates or lessons learnt for the next version of the system. •Identify risks and health and safety issues associated with removal from service and destruction of the system. •Define how users will be re-allocated, dismissed, or transferred to other duties. •Plan break-up of social structures. •Debriefing and retrospective analysis for replacement system. •Identify and use the most suitable data formats for exchanging HF data. •Have a policy for HF data management. •Perform research to develop HF data as required. •Produce coherent data standards and formats. •Define rules for the management of data. •Develop and maintain adequate data search methods. •Feedback into future HR procurement, training and delivery strategies. •Define usability as a competitive asset •Set usability, health and safety objectives for systems •Follow competitive situation in the market place •Develop user-centred infrastructure. •Relate HS issues to business benefits. •Establish and communicate a policy for human-centeredness. •Include HR and user-centred elements in support and control procedures. •Define and maintain HCD and HR infrastructure and resources. •Increase and maintain awareness of usability. •Develop or provide staff with suitable HS skills. -Program risk analysis -Value-based practices and principles (identify success critical stakeholder requirements) -Common Industry Specification for Usability Requirements -Environment/organization assessment -Risk analysis (process and product) -User feedback on usability -Use models and simulation -Guidelines: Common Industry Format for usability reports -Performance measurement -Organizational and environmental context analysis -Risk Analysis -User feedback -Work context analysis -Work context analysis -Organizational and environmental context analysis -Assess and improve HSI capability -Develop and maintain HSI infrastructure and resources -Identify required HSI skills -Provide staff with HSI skills -Establish and communicate a policy on HSI -Maintain an awareness of usability •Take account of HS issues in financial management •Assess and improve HS capability in processes that affect usability, health and safety. •Develop a common terminology for HS issues with the organization. •Facilitate personal and technical interactions related to HS issues. •Feedback into future HR procurement, training and delivery strategies. •Create capability to meet system requirements in the future (conduct succession planning) •Identify any opportunities for redeployment. •Develop a strategy for [HR] data gathering