Electric vehicles (EVs) are widely recognized as one of the most efective solutions for reducing oil consumption and lowering gas emissions. Furthermore, EVs can be connected to the power grid for charging and/or discharging, leading to a great impact to our society for eficient management of electric grid infrastructure. This paper investigates and discusses the potential integration of blockchain technology into vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems to address some of the challenges associated to its large-scale adoption. Specifically, we examine the advantages and security improvements provided by using Avalanche, a blockchain platform, within the V2G context. We also introduce AvaDrive, a decentralized application (dApp) we have developed to facilitate eficient transaction management in V2G systems.
According to the latest report by the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) on the global electric vehicle
(EV) market, more than one over five cars sold are electric [
ISSN1613-0073 transformation of the energy industry, underscores the need for strong trust relationships among all stakeholders. At the same time, it highlights the importance of maintaining core security properties, such as those defined by the CIA Triad (i.e., confidentiality, integrity, and availability).
This paper aims to integrate blockchain technology into V2G, V2B, and V2H systems to address some of the major challenges hindering their large-scale adoption. Specifically, we explore the potential benefits, limitations, and security implications of applying Avalanche, a relatively new and underexplored blockchain platform, to the V2G domain. As a proof of concept, we developed AvaDrive, a decentralized application built on the Avalanche platform to facilitate energy sharing. The dApp provides users with realistic, context-aware estimates for energy transfer times, taking into account the specific characteristics and conditions of each vehicle. For the user interface (UI), we utilized the Angular framework [20], combined with the Taiga UI component library [21], Lucide icon set [22], and 3D models to enhance interactivity and usability. Authentication is handled through the integration of a third-party service, Web3Auth [23]. To simulate charging station behavior, we employed the “SAP – e-Mobility Charging Stations Simulator” [24], which communicates via WebSocket [25] and adheres to the Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) [26]. Our framework ofers the following key features: • Decentralized Authentication & Privacy: authentication is decentralized, and privacy-oriented, relying on a Web3-based third party service; • Eficient and Scalable Management of Energy Transactions : our framework relies on Avalanche blockchain to achieve fast, low-latency, and energy-eficient transaction processing, ensuring scalability and strong security; • Development of Appealing GUI with good User eXperience: the interface relies on advanced modules ofering backward compatibility with Web2 application; • Simulation Environment for V2G: our solution integrates a professional Charging Station (CS) emulator interacting with the developed dApp.
In particular, the final dApp is developed through the Avalanche blockchain platform, which adopts a peculiar consensus mechanism and network topology to support scalability. Thanks to these characteristics, the validation of transactions always takes around two seconds, guaranteeing eficiency, which is independent of the arranged gas price, and protection from typical cyberattacks.
The paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 provides background on the key concepts underlying the proposed solution, with a focus on V2G systems and the Avalanche platform. Sect. 3 reviews related work in the field. Sect. 4 presents the proposed architecture, detailing its components and key features. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes the paper and outlines potential directions for future development of the dApp.
To optimise the HEVs and EVs charging process, it is important to understand its mode of operation. Inside a vehicle, we can have only three types of powertrain [27]. Then, we refer to an HEV when the vehicle integrates a bigger battery than traditional thermal engines (ICEV), recharged through regenerative braking, and which usually supports only low-speed driving. On the other hand, Plug-In Hybrids (PHEVs) can also be driven in a fully-electric mode like EVs (or BEVs). In short, we can have three grades of hybridisation based on how much the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is supported or completely replaced by the electric motor.
The recharging process can be performed through conductive charging, wireless charging, or over battery swapping. As the latter two technologies are still in their early phase of development [28], we are going to focus only on conductive V2G. In this context, three keys properties of the vehicle’s battery must be considered: the capacity declared in kWh, and the maximum charge and discharge power declared in kW. Factors such as the material composition of the electric cell, its cooling system, which consumes electricity as well, the chosen charging mode and the CS itself all play an important role in the recharging time and the cell’s life cycle. In practice, the full capacity of the battery is not always utilized eficiently.
From a security perspective [29], communication between the vehicle and the charging station (CS) presents several vulnerabilities that can be exploited by attackers. For example, an attacker could manipulate the system to receive more energy than paid for or, in bidirectional systems, falsely report having injected more energy into the grid than actually delivered. Cybercriminals may also intercept communication between hybrid or electric vehicles and the CS to extract sensitive information about the vehicle or its owner, or to disrupt the charging process entirely. For a detailed analysis of attack prediction and mitigation strategies targeting CSs, refer to [30].
To minimise the recharging time and prevent service disruptions, voltage fluctuations, and energy losses, the adoption of smart infrastructure is essential. Smart charging ofers a more controlled and eficient alternative to unmanaged or delayed charging, helping to extend battery life and mitigate peak demand issues. Given the critical nature of these systems, it is crucial to apply rigorous risk analysis and management techniques, identifying vulnerabilities in the same way a cybercriminal might. One such vulnerability is the presence of a Single Point of Failure (SPoF) in centralized architectures, which can pose significant threats to both system reliability and data privacy. From the PUVEC (Urban Platform for Connected Electric Vehicles) project [31], we see that the communications are heterogeneous, and there is heavy trafic among the vehicles and the road infrastructure: an HEV or EV can be attacked by manipulating the information that they need to provide to the server, or they can be forced to not collaborate; an unauthorised node can also interfere to collect private data, and the network itself can be subjected to Denial of Service (DoS) attacks, for instance. A possible solution to obtain a more reliable and eficient system consists of integrating bidirectional charging through V2G [27]. In this way, the HEV or EV acts as an accumulator and can supply power to the electric grid when it does not recharge in Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) mode. The vehicle can also provide energy to a single building in V2B, when other sources have peak requests and high prices, consequently. If these users were to use V2H at night and V2B at their workplace, we could have multiple advantages, such as obtaining a better Load Frequency Control (LFC) and “zero energy buildings” [32]. However, we should consider cells’ degradation and their cooling systems as well as the charging times, establishing coordination between all the involved parties. There, the installation of DERs, particularly renewable ones like home solar panels, can be beneficial.
In the last few months, the American automaker Ford has partnered with Resideo, a smart home solutions company and Honeywell spin-of founded in 2018, on the “EV-Home Power Partnership” project [33] designed to explore the potential of electric vehicle batteries to support optimal home energy management. To illustrate the practical impact of this initiative, we can refer to home energy consumption data from the latest study conducted by Istat (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica) during 2020–2021. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, energy use was elevated during this period, with the average Italian household consuming approximately 16 kWh per day [34]. Taking as an example the Ford F-150 Lightning, an all-electric version of Ford’s iconic F-150 pickup truck equipped with Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) capabilities and a 131 kWh battery, we can estimate that the vehicle could power an average Italian household for up to eight days, aligning with Ford’s own claims [35]. From a financial perspective, the base model of the F-150 Lightning pick-up costs around 60,000 Euros. In comparison, a typical home energy storage system is estimated to cost approximately 1,000 Euros per kWh of capacity [36]. Based on this metric, using the vehicle as an energy storage unit can result in significant savings, especially in terms of the initial investment.
The EU encourages the adoption of V2G in Regulation 2023/1804 [37] and in Directive 2024/1275,
which plans the adoption of V2B [38]. However, for implementing V2G, V2B and V2H, we may need
more complex infrastructures, as well as continuous and reliable communications [39]. Finally, the
automotive sector has already taken some steps in the V2G, V2B and V2H direction. In fact, scholar
buses have a huge decrease in the cost for each seat when they implement V2G [
The mobility sector has been strongly influenced by the emergence of the SE [
The blockchain is often associated with cryptocurrencies and the financial sector, but its applications
can be extended to healthcare, logistics, and the energy industry too [
Briefly, blockchain is a distributed database maintained across a decentralized network. It operates
as a linear sequence of blocks, where each block contains a timestamp, transaction data, and the
cryptographic hash of the previous block, ensuring data integrity and resistance to tampering. This
structure inherently supports transparency, as all participants in the network have access to the same
version of the ledger. In open and permissionless networks, where the number of participants is
theoretically unlimited, consensus algorithms are essential for coordinating cooperation and defending
against malicious actors. Distributed systems must solve the consensus problem, where each node must
independently verify the validity of received information [
Building on the previous discussion, we can now assess the key advantages and limitations of
blockchain technology [
Cybersecurity and privacy are also critical in systems like transportation and energy. To address these
concerns, blockchain implementations must incorporate robust cryptographic and privacy-preserving
techniques [
Blockchain proves advantageous over traditional databases in scenarios where data immutability,
lack of a central authority, and limited trust between parties are critical requirements [
Blockchain also enhances the smart charging ecosystem by improving interactions between electric
vehicles (EVs) and smart grids [
Blockchain can be beneficial to the IoE, optimising energy consumption through SCs, thanks to its
properties of transparency and traceability. The most common platforms for energy trading applications
are Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric. Particularly, consortium or permissioned blockchains are often
favored in energy contexts for their enhanced security models [
While Avalanche is less widely adopted than some alternatives, its consensus mechanism and network
topology make it a compelling choice for energy and mobility applications that demand scalability,
resilience, and eficiency [
Building on the previous considerations, it is evident that P2P energy trading, V2G systems, and blockchain technology have the potential to reshape the mobility sector, especially the automotive industry. Blockchain can be leveraged not only for energy distribution but also for secure and transparent payment mechanisms, addressing several of the security concerns previously discussed.
There are numerous industrial initiatives exploring the integration of blockchain into energy and
transportation infrastructures. Among the most notable is the Brooklyn Microgrid project, which
combines P2P energy trading with blockchain [
Beyond the aforementioned use cases, various research institutions have proposed alternative
solutions. For example, Chonbuk National University in South Korea has explored the use of Hyperledger
Fabric for a P2P energy trading system, introducing a ’Parking Lot Local Controller’ (PLLC) to
dynamically switch between consumer and producer roles based on smart grid conditions [
So far, Avalanche has not been adopted for the design of P2P energy trading systems, and this
motivates our choice for the development of the PoC. Let us remember that this blockchain is based
on the EVM, but it uses a particular consensus mechanism to obtain more scalability and eficiency in
the transactions’ approval process. Moreover, even if it is less known, important companies such as
Mastercard and KKR have collaborated with Avalanche [
Then, the PoC takes as a reference [19] and [18]. In detail, the first source proposes a Hyperledger Fabric-based system for validating users and paying for energy transactions. Moreover, it focuses on solving the oracle problem using a Certified Authority (CA) to guarantee the true identities of participants. The second article compares diferent blockchains to develop eficient SCs, which store data related to unidirectional EVs recharging. The group of Swiss researchers have chosen Ethereum to govern the energy transactions between hotels and their clients who own the vehicles. In fact, via a web interface, the hotels’ managers can control the architecture in real-time while creating accounts for the clients who can oversee their HEVs and EVs charging process through a mobile application. There is a major focus on “transaction fees” and costs attributed to clients without using cryptocurrencies, while future developments are centred on scalability and the respect of privacy properties for data that is stored on-chain. In this particular paper, we can notice the use of specific data structures to memorise the information related to energy transactions. By the way, our contribution is characterised by peculiar elements, apart from the choice of Avalanche. In efect, we integrate a third-party service for users’ decentralised authentication and remain in a simulation environment for the electric operations. In addition, we continue to consider V2G and bidirectional charging, distancing ourselves from the second reference. Finally, the project has been managed through an incremental process.
AvaDrive is a decentralized application developed as a proof of concept to explore the advantages, limitations, and security aspects of leveraging the Avalanche blockchain in the context of bidirectional charging, with a particular focus on storing data related to V2G energy transfers. The primary objective is to build a system that is secure, fully decentralized, and accessible, even to users with no prior experience in Web3 technologies.
The AvaDrive architecture is structured around three core components (Figure 1 illustrates the system architecture, including all integrated components): 1. dApp: this component manages user authentication and facilitates interaction with the blockchain via an RPC endpoint, ensuring seamless communication between the front end and the decentralized network. 2. Blockchain layer : this layer is responsible for securely recording energy transaction data and executing the smart contract that governs the logic of bidirectional charging operations. 3. Charging Station simulator : this component was designed to emulate real-world charging infrastructure. It includes an OCPP server running on the backend. The server acts as the central management system, handling transaction logging and communication with simulated charge points. Validated energy transactions can then be forwarded to the Avalanche blockchain for permanent, tamper-resistant storage.
The process flow is structured as follows: a user first authenticates, then he/she initiates an energy transaction — input if acting as a consumer, output if a producer, or bidirectional if a prosumer. Once the energy transfer is completed, the corresponding financial transaction takes place. The entire operation is then permanently recorded on the blockchain, ensuring transparency and immutability.
AvaDrive GUI. For the development of AvaDrive, we selected Angular [20] as the front-end
framework due to its widespread adoption and maturity within the industry. The user interface (UI) and user
experience (UX) are responsive and visually appealing, built using Taiga UI [21], a well-documented and
actively maintained component library developed by Tinkof Bank. To further enhance the interface,
we integrated Lucide icons [22], 3D models sourced from Sketchfab [
Web3 has been defined as the new Internet era where the fundamental concept is “user-centrism”,
where individuals own their data and identities, supported by concepts like Self-Sovereign Identity
(SSI) and privacy by design. This model leverages decentralization and interoperability, though it
still faces key challenges such as Web2 compatibility, the absence of standardized protocols,
energyintensive scalability, and maintaining robust security properties [
Figure 2 presents three screenshots of the AvaDrive dApp: the homepage on a mobile device, the Web3Auth login modal from a laptop, and a sample energy transaction request as displayed on a vehicle’s dashboard.
AvaDrive Smart Contract. We developed a smart contract to manage energy transfers for producers, consumers, and prosumers using Solidity within the Hardhat framework [89, 90]. Hardhat is a powerful development environment tailored for building, testing, and deploying smart contracts on Ethereumcompatible blockchains, including Ethereum itself, Avalanche’s C-Chain, Polygon, and other networks that support the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM).
The smart contract distinguishes between: public functions, which can be called externally, private functions, which are restricted to internal contract logic, view functions, which read but do not modify state, and pure functions, which operate independently of state and storage. We also made use of Solidity’s memory management: storage for persistent data tied to the contract’s state, and memory for temporary data during function execution, and calldata for handling function inputs eficiently. These distinctions are crucial for optimizing gas costs and ensuring the contract remains lightweight and cost-efective.
To handle user roles, we implemented a structured mapping system that categorizes users into producers, consumers, and prosumers. Each energy transaction is associated with a unique hash, which helps prevent duplicate executions by the same user. We also implemented safeguards to verify correct contract execution, along with an internal function for cryptocurrency-based payments—tailored for our V2G simulation context. Figure 3 presents an excerpt of the Solidity code, showing: a mapping for user classification, a public function using memory to store prosumer data, and a view function to retrieve a user’s charging history.
The smart contract was successfully deployed to the Avalanche C-Chain Fuji Testnet. To facilitate interactions with the blockchain, we integrated a third-party service for handling Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs). Based on the oficial Web3Auth documentation, we chose Ankr [88] as our RPC provider. The dApp communicates with the blockchain via Ankr RPC endpoints and the Viem library [91]. For testing purposes, we utilized two wallets funded with AVAX from the Fuji Testnet faucet. A MetaMask wallet is used by the dApp user, while a Core wallet serves as the transaction counterparty for each interaction.
Charging Station Simulator. To simulate the V2G environment, we integrated the “SAP e-Mobility Charging Stations Simulator” [24], which is part of the professional SAP e-Mobility platform [92]. This simulator operates using the OCPP-J protocol [26, 93]. To interface with it, we developed a Node.js server inspired by [94], supporting WebSocket communications [25]. Our dApp connects to the simulator’s UI Server using the WebSocket API [95], and its JSON responses are parsed in order to be easily understood by the final user.
In addition to the standard setup, our implementation includes a function that estimates energy transmission time whenever a transaction is requested. This estimation considers key parameters like battery capacity, max charge/discharge power, and the selected charging system, along with contextual variables such as weather conditions. The resulting (semi-randomized) duration is converted into milliseconds for simulation purposes. Once the simulated transfer completes, the energy transaction is recorded on the blockchain, and the corresponding payment is processed (Figure 4). Figure 5 illustrates a TypeScript code snippet that gets a casual element, estimates the charging duration, and handles the execution of the energy transaction.
Despite the relative novelty of some of the technologies used, we successfully integrated them to develop AvaDrive, a decentralized application designed for producers, consumers, and prosumers within the V2G ecosystem. In particular, even if Web3Auth, Viem, Taiga UI, and Avalanche are not the most adopted in their respective sectors, they should be appreciated for their reliability. Avalanche’s ecosystem is quite vast and accessible, and it easily cooperates with other systems because it is based on the EVM. Moreover, it facilitates scalability thanks to its consensus mechanism and network of networks topology. This avoids congestion, so we can obtain transactions’ confirmations in around two seconds as well as other benefits against common blockchain cyberattacks, such as the “double spending” one. On the other hand, a bad management of the subnetworks may undermine the blockchain’s decentralisation.
Scalability and eficiency are crucial for V2G because we have a huge information trafic from diferent users. Security and privacy are important as well. Then, we can do some theoretical considerations using a system’s DFMEA [96] and the data analysed in the OWASP Top 10 [97]. Focusing on high severity and RPNs values, we can delineate which failure modes are more dangerous than others and need more attention. In particular, we notice that high RPNs are especially due to their respective occurrence. We also did not prevent DoS attacks or the execution of CSCs. All of these aspects can become real security requirements in the redesign of some fundamental functionalities. Of course, we should also respect privacy [98]. Nevertheless, coming out of the simulation environment, given the whole real system architecture, we could apply other security analyses, such as the TARA [99].
As previously seen, we chose a fixed value for the “gas fee”, equal to 60000 WEI or 0.00000000000006 ETH and, in January 2025, 0.0000000002 euros: a paltry cost that can be managed by producers and prosumers or included in the final user’s expenses. From the public ledger, we can really observe that the cost for a single energy transmission contains 0.000000025 AVAX for the total “gas price”. We decided to assign 0.000001 ETH for each kWh and we can see that an energy transaction costs from 0.00006000000006 to 0.00161232 AVAX. This means that the cost of energy is the most influential factor. We can also confirm that each transaction is validated in two seconds at maximum, independently of the paid fees. More in detail, we can take a look at the simultaneous automatic registration of two users to check this statement (see Figure 6).
In conclusion, we showed an eficient and secure dApp for the simulation environment, which also guarantees easy interactions with the blockchain for the final users, like a Web2 experience.
We started analysing the recharging process of HEVs and EVs to optimise it from a security perspective. We also briefly examined the economic context that is influencing the mobility sector, which can be correlated to the emergence of new P2P-based technologies. So, we analysed blockchain to guarantee fundamental security properties when diverse parties do not have a common bond of trust. Since this happens in IoT, V2G, and their variations, we can apply ICTs, including blockchain, to obtain the IoE. Therefore, data integrity, sharing, reliability, and scalability are essential to get resilience to failures as well as increase DERs adoption. In this context, HEVs and EVs are true assets. Then, we saw some business and research use cases, which applied blockchain to energy transfers and payments. After a comparison with other platforms, we have chosen two references to implement our Avalanche-based PoC. After, we described the advantages and disadvantages of the dApp AvaDrive for V2G energy transactions.
HEVs and EVs are modifying our day-to-day life and the current economy, V2G has the potential to act in an analogous way. Therefore, AvaDrive has been an opportunity to attest how blockchain, particularly the less-known platform Avalanche, can support the maintenance of essential security properties that optimise V2G.
In the future, we should redesign some functions that imply security, including cryptographic techniques and considering the storage of private data of-chain to comply with the right to be forgotten, imposed by the EU Regulation 2016/679 (GDPR) [100], for instance. Realising a physical infrastructure, we should also examine in-depth the interdependencies between the dApp and external systems to avoid DoS, the execution of CSCs, and eventually report temporary failures to users. Leaving the simulation environment, we can also integrate the “IDRO” mentioned in [38]. This would permit an easy identification of CSs from the dApp itself as well as prosumers’ simple registration to the same register. From a practical point of view, a consumer or prosumer can benefit from the dApp directly in their vehicles or by scanning a QR code on the chosen CS. Moreover, we can integrate a payment method alternative to cryptocurrency, maybe ofered by a third party. If we scale the architecture outside of the emulation field, we should exploit all of Avalanche’s capacities, using multiple subnetworks, maybe distributed geographically, and letting them communicate through the Teleporter protocol, for example.
For all the mentioned reasons, AvaDrive can be a useful starting point to delve into the application of blockchain to V2G in our everyday life.
This work was supported in part by project SERICS (PE00000014) under the NRRP MUR program funded by the EU - NGEU. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the Italian MUR. Neither the European Union nor the Italian MUR can be held responsible for them.
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