This paper provides an overview of a Design-Based Research (DBR) study which resulted in a prototype of the MobileEnabled Language Learning Eco-System (MELLES) and replicable design principles to guide development of practical innovative mobile learning interventions. The MELLES solution was generated to augment in-class practice of ESP skills with learning embedded in real-life dynamic communicative situations. The solution was developed over multiple cycles of design, development, and testing which involved students and practitioners representing all relevant fields. The study and design activities were conducted at a Canadian community college and were guided by the Ecological Constructivist framework which evolved as a result of the initial stages of the project. The DBR methodology and the study outcomes are discussed along with the key features and various interdependent components of the MELLES system.
The inherently multi-cycle process of creating effective technology-based solutions necessitates recursive steps to be carried out over an extended period of time. Accordingly, the outcomes and feedback of the iterative design, development, implementation and evaluation activities were fed back into the successive cycles of the study to facilitate the design of an educational intervention reflecting the requirements of the study participants. At the same time, the participative and collaborative character of the process allowed for interactivity and cooperation amongst practitioners, students, experts, and the researcher. Being grounded in a naturalistic setting and focused on issues of everyday practice, the study resulted in practical solutions leading to reusable design principles. The DBR approach also provided an appropriate framework to examine the complex educational needs and solutions holistically resulting in the design of a multi-component mobile learning system. Lastly, this flexible structure afforded gradual refinement and creation of two interdependent outcomes: the MELLES intervention and the corresponding theory in the form of design principles. In order to address the complexity of the context and ensure a systematic approach, a proven DBR model was adopted the Integrative Learning Design Framework (ILDF) (Bannan, 2009). This comprehensive four-stage model offered a methodical framework allowing for “rigorous, research-based cycles within a technology-based instructional design process” (p. 53). The framework comprises four phases: (1) Informed Exploration, (2) Enactment (3) Evaluation: Local Impact, and (4) Evaluation: Broader Impact (out of scope of this research). While the IDLF model guided the macro and micro cycles of the process, the key research question served as the pivotal element of this multidimensional study. Research question The overarching research question, repetitively asked at the various stages of the study, inquired what characteristics of the MELL intervention were considered vital for its design to be effective and pedagogically-sound: What are the characteristics of an effective, pedagogically-sound MELLES for students’ mobile devices, through which adult ESP students in a community college enhance listening skills, while expanding their learning outside of the classroom? It is worth noting that, based on the findings of the Informed Exploration phase, the question evolved from its original version and consequently the notion of a learning object was replaced with that of a MELL ecological system. The attribute of being pedagogically-sound referred to an intervention (1) created and evaluated following the main theoretical framework of Ecological Constructivism, and (2) designed to promote learning of listening skills. In terms of the effectiveness of MELLES, it was measured by participant feedback on perceived learning as well as their satisfaction with the design of the intervention and the learning experience.
The intervention was designed for ESP college students studying at the college programs in the area of business, accounting, hospitality, and technology. Using their own mobile devices students piloted MELLES in the streets and at landmarks of Toronto, where they interacted with the tasks and interlocutors in a dynamic language environment, which both supported their language practice and challenged them to make meaning and communicate.
Research design The study encompassed three phases: Informed Exploration, Enactment and Evaluation: Local Impact. These phases overlapped resembling what in software design would be referred to as an agile approach with the results of both formal and ad-hoc feedback being dynamically integrated into the design. The focus of the first phase was on needs analysis, audience characterization, literature review, as well as the development of the conceptual model and theoretical framework. The Enactment phase concentrated on the design of the prototype, as well as testing and refinement of both the model and the design principles. The third phase, the Evaluation phase, entailed testing, piloting, and evaluation leading to further theory and design refinement. In addition, ad-hoc feedback was exchanged across all cycles of the three phases thus allowing for more responsiveness to changing design requirements. Figure 1 provides an overview of the timelines, main activities, data, participants, and outcomes of the three phases.
Data collection and analysis Mixed data were collected throughout the project as specified in Figure 1 below. All qualitative data were analysed using the NVivo9 Qualitative Data Analysis System. The manifold iterations of coding and re-coding resulted in several recurrent themes distilled based on their relative frequencies. To reflect participant feedback, these themes were organized into two super-categories: Pedagogy and Technology and indicated the design features deemed by participants as vital for the desired MELL intervention. They were then validated by the quantitative data, collected through the surveys, and analyzed with Excel and the SPSS statistical predictive analytics software. The ensuing findings encapsulated the essential characteristics and elements of MELLES discussed below.
Participants This interdisciplinary study benefited from contributions and feedback from 163 students (excluding the 191 students from the Mobile Device survey), eight professors from a variety of George Brown College programs — School of Computer Technology (3), School of Design (2), School of Business (1), Centre for Hospitality and Culinary Arts (1) and the Intensive English (IEP) program (1)—as well as two external IT and mobile programming experts. The Digital Design professors contributed their expertise in the design of content for mobile devices as well as in interactive game design. One IEP and three Communications (COMM) professors offered their knowledge of ESP and language learning. Two School of Computer Technology professors shared their extensive applied knowledge of wireless technologies and mobile programming. Students from the above-mentioned departments were involved in two different roles: two cohorts of Digital Design and Computer Programmer Analyst students as designers and developers, and five groups of IEP and COMM students, representing eight different college programs, participated in the pilots and evaluation of these designs.
LIMITATIONS There were two key limitations to the study with the scope of DBR being the principle one. Due to the complexity of the studied system, some of its constituent elements could not be examined in-depth (e.g. cross-platform development). A decision was made to choose the breadth over depth of investigation. Moreover, with respect to measuring MELLES effectiveness, students indicated high satisfaction with the system based on their perceived learning and positive learning experience, but no evidence of learning was collected through formal tests of students’ language proficiency. Other limitations resulting from the nature of the DBR methodology included the overwhelming amounts of data, having impact on data collection and analysis procedures, difficulty managing multiple DBR activities and coordinating participants over the stretch of the study, as well as the intensity, complexity and messiness of the context. In terms of the researcher role, while she was able to rely on a team of practitioners and experts, the researcher had to wear many hats during the study. She had to assume the roles of an investigator, project coordinator, instructional designer and theorist, software designer, evaluator, m-learning Subject Matter Expert, and negotiator. That resulted in having to assume the conflicting roles of advocate and critic of the MELL design. Another challenge resulting from the joint role of designer and researcher was having to evaluate own intervention designs which put the researcher objectivity and reflexivity to test. The next three sections provide a brief overview of the DBR phases and their key findings. PHASE 1: INFORMED EXPLORATION During Informed Exploration, data were collected through mixed methods from students and practitioners who had participated in the pilot of the mobile solution before the DBR study, as well as from Digital Design and Programming students who were working on MELLES prototypes as part of their course assignments. The college-wide Mobile Device Usage Survey was also deployed and its findings enriched the understanding of how students use mobile technologies. The outcomes of this phase formed the basis for the subsequent DBR activities. The ideal model was created reflecting the main characteristics of the intervention as identified by the participants. These were translated into the first set of design guidelines. The Ecological Constructivist framework also evolved at this stage. Phase 1 Findings: Emerging Themes Starting with the Informed Exploration phase and throughout the two other phases qualitative feedback was captured in text, images and audio files. To conduct rigorous data analysis, all data sources were integrated into the NVivo system, and codes were generated in a cyclical fashion. Thematic codes were assigned to phrases and sentences through repetitive thematic analysis always going back to the main research question. The set of categories and sub-categories that were eventually developed was a result of many coding sessions spreading across the DBR phases with the final set of categories (Table 1) emerging when all the aggregate data was revisited in the final stage of the data analysis. The quantitative results are excluded here for reasons of length and because the subsequent qualitative analysis not only validated the quantitative findings but provided a much more elaborated and informative perspective. Phase 1 Findings and Discussion: Emerging Ecological Constructivist framework Phase 1 also produced an ecological framework referred to as Ecological Constructivism (Hoven & Palalas, 2011). The ecological paradigm demonstrated to be an appropriate approach for the exploration of the MELLES system. The specific context of learning listening in the real-world with the help of mobile technologies required a theoretical framework which supported a more holistic and systemic approach to the process of learning - mediated by mobile technology and interaction with other people as well as its context. The Ecological Constructivist metaphor aimed to capture the interconnectedness of psychological, social, cognitive, and environmental processes as well as the coexistence of pedagogical and technological elements interplaying in a dynamic real-life language learning environment. Ecological Constructivism integrates the Socio-Cultural Theory constructs of (1) knowledge co-creation being socially and culturally mediated with the help of tools, and (2) those tools being applied in active learning (3) targeting real-life communicative goals. It also melds Vygotsky’s notions of (4) ZPD and (4) scaffolding as well as (4) co-dependence of individual cognition and collaborative learning. It stresses that the fluid nature of the changing context and the active engagement of learners are both required to co-construe knowledge. The notion of context affordances was also introduced and defined as “a particular property of the environment that is relevant—for good or for ill—to an active, perceiving organism in that environment” (van Lier, 2000, p. 252). Accordingly, context affordances mediate the process of learning by providing linguistic cues and other meaning-making supports to those learners who perceive them. Mobile technologies enable noticing the affordances and interaction with those learning supports. All in all, the ecological metaphor emphasizes the wholeness of the MELLES learning system and the interconnectedness of all its elements. PHASE 2: ENACTMENT The Enactment phase entailed the design of the successive prototypes, testing and refinement of both the model and the design principles. Digital Design and Programming students as well as practitioners were very active creating, testing and recreating four functional prototypes of the MELLES system. Continuous evaluation of those prototypes, which was part of the concurrent Phase 3, allowed producing the final version of the mobile website which connecting the MELLES users with its resources and functionalities.
Phase 2 Findings and Discussion The mobi-english.mobi website was constructed using the WordPress Mobile Pack, a reliable cross-platform tool. The website served as a gateway to all MELLES resources, as well as the hub of communication and interaction for learners and their facilitators. Eight listening tasks, which ESP students could access through the website, represented a range of approaches to listening skills acquisition, including individual and collaborative activities, two way communicative challenges and non-reciprocal listening practice. The tasks did not have to be completed in a linear fashion - any one of them could serve as an entry point into the MELLES network. All tasks were related and fed into each other. Following the key principles of ecological thinking—relationships, connectedness, dynamic process and fluid context in which all elements interact to form a web—the prototype solution was designed to encourage collaboration and interaction, thus interlinking the members of the learning community. Consequently, students were asked to complete some of the tasks in groups or pairs. They were also encouraged to co-create multimedia artefacts and evaluate each other’s work by leaving comments and rating their audio recordings. Communication was enabled through more traditional channels, such as email and telephone, as well as by blogging, phlogging (blogging by phone), and by exchanging audio recordings. MELLES included both learning tasks requiring students to be at a particular location and those that could be completed at the time and place of their chosing. Blending learner autonomy with peer and expert support was a significant aspect of how the system functioned. In addition, to provide support in the form of scaffolding, resources and motivation, the system had to be resource-rich and consistently stable. It was the role of the moderator to step in when the instability was apparent. Based on the participant feedback, MELLES was designed to function like an eco-system connecting the actors, resources, and the context of learning at any time, any place, and any point of the learning process. Figure 2 presents two screenshots of the MELLES interface: mobile and desktop. 38 14 13 PHASE 3: EVALUATION - LOCAL IMPACT Phase 3 included testing of the MELLES software and piloting the tasks and the complete system by the target users. Speakers of English as a second language from a number of College programs completed the tasks and evaluated the MELLES system. Practitioners and the students, who were involved in the design and redesign of the intervention, also shared their input. As a result of the analysis of that feedback the design and corresponding design guidelines were refined and finalized. The gist of the qualitative data is provided in the table of the most frequent themes below (Table 1). These themes indicate the features and functionalities of the system identified as its most vital elements. Phase 3 Findings: Key Research Outcomes The Evaluation phase refined and finalized the following key outcomes: 1. a practical model of a MELL system was created for ESP practice and future studies, 2. the theory evolved to produce the MELLES design principles and the Ecological Constructivist framework, and 3. the DBR method was thoroughly tested and optimized.
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SUMMATIVE DISCUSSION
The design guidelines distilled from the research data encompassed both substantive and procedural knowledge: they
identify the critical characteristics of MELLES as well as strategies required to incorporate these features in the design
(Table 2). Due to the scope of this paper, any further discussion of the procedural design principles and the rationale for
their inclusion had to be omitted
(Substantive Emphasis) 2 Learner-generated linguistic artefacts (audio, video, photos, images)
Strategy (Procedural Emphasis) Include audio recordings (video, images, photos) created by students in response to communicative tasks Share and showcase learner-generated artefacts Provide tools for recording, editing, upload and viewing/listening on-the- go (or demonstrate the usage of device built-in tools) Provide clear directions on creating artefacts Build in a rating system for artefact evaluation Accompany website peer eval. by expert feedback Encourage creativity
Rationale (in order to …) Encourage autonomous and creative learning Promote meaningful learning through creation,
construction, and sharing of artefacts Enhance individual and group motivation Support cognitive processes through hands-on
construction of artefacts Blend creativity and competition in learner
generated artefacts exchange Encourage abstract and creative thinking leading to
engagement and motivation Promote learner ownership and agency It is worth noting that the participants agreed that none of the individual elements of the MELLES educational intervention could exist on their own, instead they were interconnected and supported each other. For instance, students could not produce any audio recordings (pedagogical principle 2) without the MELLES artefact authoring tools (technological principle 5) or expert facilitation (pedagogical principle 4). Most importantly, the mobile technology was viewed as the glue and enabler of all the pedagogical features which facilitated situated learning and the acquisition of aural skills. The abbreviated substantive guidelines, both pedagogical and technological, are presented below. Design Principles The ten pedagogical essential characteristics of MELLES include: 1. Balanced combination of individual and collaborative (group work) tasks; 2. Learner-generated linguistic artefacts (audio, video, photos, images); 3. Game-like real-life communicative tasks; 4. Expert facilitation: scaffolding, feedback, and coordination; 5. Feedback mechanism (immediate and delayed); 6. Focus on authentic listening tasks in the dynamic real-world communicative situations; 7. Support of self-paced individual audio tasks feeding into/preparing learners for the real-life tasks; 8. Integrate all four language skills but focus on listening outcomes; 9. Linguistic resources (task-related): relevant vocabulary, dictionaries, pronunciation, clear task directions and explanations, examples of language usage; 10. Support of out-of-class learning with in-class (f2f) instruction and practice (blending in-class and out-of-class). To enable the above pedagogical features, the following technological components should be integrated into the system: 1. One-point access to all resources; 2. Exchange and communication platform; 3. Scalability, flexibility and adaptability of the system; 4. Scalable rating scheme (from artefact to learning structures to the whole system); 5. Multimedia (including text) - artefact authoring, management and usage capabilities; 6. Cross platform and multi-technology support; 7. Integrated technology support and tutoring/instruction; 8. Personalized user progress tracking capabilities.
The interdependencies between pedagogical and technological constituents formed a network of relationships which, combined with the actors and the learning context, resulted in the Mobile-Enabled Language Learning Eco-System. Mobile-Enabled Language Learning Eco-System (MELLES) The holistic approach encapsulated in Ecological Constructivism put more emphasis on the interdependence of the MELL solution components and the context in which they were intended to be used. The constituent elements of the recommended system need to co-exist for the intervention to promote learning. In fact, it is imperative for the MELLES components to interact and maintain a dynamic balance, as exemplified by the combination of collaborative and individual language activities.
Considering the multiplicity of elements recognized as critical for the effective mobile design, and how they interrelate and support each other, MELLES has to provide a learning environment in which the parts of the system could interact in various configurations promoting the flexibility and evolution of the whole system, and most importantly, enabling seamless mobile learning experience.
Hence, the central feature of the MELLES approach is the coexistence and the relationship of its learning tasks, learners, facilitators, the dynamic language environment in which these tasks are completed, as well as the technology that enables and mediates the learning process and the collaboration between the actors involved in the process. Mobile devices enable communicative exchanges, storage and access to ESP content, learning support and scaffolding. They also help capture linguistic evidence by way of learner-generated artefacts and assist in interaction with contextual affordances used for linguistic action. In addition, the MELLES network of peers, experts and authentic language speakers facilitates learning by means of authentic discourse, feedback, resource sharing and social support.
Additionally, MELLES instruction should encourage dynamic interaction with the English speaking environment to help decode the meaning offered by the real-life language situations. Regular in-class instruction should also be combined with the out-of-class practice and linked into a cohesive learning experience via the MELLES platform and its communication management tools. Furthermore, offering on-demand connection to the system promotes social, cognitive, teaching, and emotional presence (Swan et al., 2008). This results in a collaborative network which has become the predominant structure of the recommended MELLES solution. All in all, MELLES provides mobile access to people, linguistic resources, and context affordances (Hoven & Palalas, 2011) mediating real-life language practice. Accordingly, new knowledge is generated across the web connecting (1) language, (2) mobile technology, (3) artefacts, (4) learners, experts and (5) other speakers, in (6) a real-life context of learning which all co-mediate the learning process (Figure 3). SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Guided by the research question the study resulted in the evolution of theory and practice. The study resulted in a set of replicable design principles to guide the design and development of practical innovative mobile learning interventions. These guidelines are formulated to help practitioners to select and apply the substantive and procedural principles suitable for their specific design in their own contexts.
Guided by current second language learning pedagogy and a Constructivist framework, the original theoretical framework was reconceptualized during the first phase of the study to use a more systemic ecological metaphor. As a result, Ecological Constructivism was proposed as a theory of learning which matched the MELL design requirements emerging from the study. The ecological metaphor offered a holistic lens through which to examine the complex process of learning situated in a dynamic language environment. It also facilitated the investigation of the many dimensions of technology-assisted second language learning amongst adult learners in the out-of-class real-world context. Accordingly, the MELLES approached the learning of listening within the context of whole language learning experience, that is, (1) practicing listening as part of a whole language system (including four language skills, communication versus grammar, socio-cultural competencies), (2) learning it in the whole context of students’ life (accommodating their busy schedules and interest), (3) co-construing knowledge as part of the whole learning community, and (4) actively practicing listening in the whole communicative context of the real-life language situations that learners encounter. The systemic perspective on the MELL intervention stresses the wholeness and connectedness of the constituent parts of the learning context. It also supports whole learning by providing mobile tools which connect the learner with facilitators and peers, learning tasks and instructions, linguistic resources and supports, as well as context affordances which learners can perceive. To that end, the MELLES prototype, offers a network of artefact exchange and communication tools that can be used wherever and whenever. It is an innovative model for learning aural skills in an authentic language setting using learners’ mobile devices. It was tested and retested for its applicability in the dynamic, often messy and unpredictable context of language learning. Hence, it provides a practical model for replication in similar educational contexts and further studies. Finally, the DBR methodology adopted in the study was tested, adjusted, and optimized for the specific environment. In the process, the DBR approach demonstrated to be valid, useful and informative for educational context.
Olga Viberg Örebro University Business School, Örebro, Sweden ovi@du.se
Åke Grönlund Örebro University Business School,
Örebro, Sweden ake.gronlund@oru.se ABSTRACT Mobile assisted language learning (MALL) is a subarea of the growing field of mobile learning (mLearning) research which increasingly attracts the attention of scholars. This study provides a systematic review of MALL research within the specific area of second language acquisition during the period 2007 - 2012 in terms of research approaches, methods, theories and models, as well as results in the form of linguistic knowledge and skills. The findings show that studies of mobile technology use in different aspects of language learning support the hypothesis that mobile technology can enhance learners’ second language acquisition. However, most of the reviewed studies are experimental, small-scale, and conducted within a short period of time. There is also a lack of cumulative research; most theories and concepts are used only in one or a few papers. This raises the issue of the reliability of findings over time, across changing technologies, and in terms of scalability. In terms of gained linguistic knowledge and skills, attention is primarily on learners’ vocabulary acquisition, listening and speaking skills, and language acquisition in more general terms. Author Keywords Mobile assisted language learning, MALL, mobile learning, second language acquisition, mobile technology INTRODUCTION Mobile technologies are rapidly attracting new users, providing increasing capacity, and allowing more sophisticated use. This influences cultural practices and enables new contexts for learning (Pachler et al., 2010). The integration of such technologies into teaching and learning has been more gradual, as educators need to understand how they can be effectively used to support various kinds of learning (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008) and develop effective methods and materials for mobile assisted language learning (MALL), a specialization of mobile learning (mLearning). The main characteristics of mobile learning, such as permanency, accessibility, immediacy, interactivity, situating of instructional activities, are summarized and introduced by Ogata & Yano (2005). While definitions differ, it is obvious that not only technology but also people can be mobile. For the purpose of this paper we define mLearning as a “process of coming to know through conversations across multiple contexts among people and personal interactive technologies” (Sharples et al., 2007, 225) with a focus on contexts. The technology to assist in this process includes any kind of handheld mobile devices such as cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), smartphones, pads, pods, etc. Laptops are today typically not considered mobile in this context, even though they obviously are to some extent. Ogata et al. (2010) state: “computer assisted mobile learning uses lightweight devices such as personal digital assistant (PDA), cellular mobile phones, and so on” (p.8). In the lack of a strict definition, for the purpose of this paper we refer to anything that can be used when walking around.
As mobile technologies provide many advantages: flexibility, low cost, small size and user-friendliness, researchers are exploring how to use mobile technology to support language learning (Huang et al., 2012). However, there are also obvious disadvantages, such as small screen size, limited presentation of graphics (Albers & Kim, 2001), and dependence on networks that may not always provide very high transmission capacity and may be subject to disturbances of many kinds. Despite such shortcomings Thornton and Houser (2005) show that mobile devices can indeed be effective tools for delivering language learning materials to the students. Kukulska-Hulme & Shield (2008) offer a seminal overview of MALL asking whether and how mobile devices support collaborative practice in speaking and listening. The study presented the two main approaches to MALL, content-related and design-related studies. These approaches still dominate in the literature, although the focus is shifting towards design-oriented studies when creating authentic and/or social mobile learning environments (Wong & Looi, 2011).
This review presents an extensive coverage of empirical research, as published in English during the period 2007-2012, concerning the use and effectiveness of MALL in second and foreign language (L2) education with a focus on the methodological, theoretical and linguistic knowledge trends. What theories, research approaches and methods are used when analyzing MALL? Which aspects of MALL are being researched? What are the results so far, and what research gaps are there? The review follows the Webster and Watson (2002) method combining keyword searching and examination of leading journals. First, a set of keywords was identified. Primarily the keywords mobile learning together with (AND) language learning were used. Further, different combinations of such keywords as handheld device, cell phone, mobile phone, PDA, smartphone, mobile, application together with language learning were used. To ensure reliability, search strategies were refined by examining the retrieved articles’ abstracts. To further enhance reliability, manual searches were carried out in key journals, including Computer Assisted Language Learning Journal, Computers and Education, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Educational Technology and Society and Language Learning and Technology. A further search technique was “snowballing”, i.e. following up references in the identified papers and identifying most cited papers. The selection of articles to be included in the review was based on the inclusion criteria presented below. Several international conference papers (such conferences as EUROCALL (European Computer Assisted Language Learning), International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education, mLearn etc.) are also included due to the fact that many of the results of the ongoing projects have not been published yet in peer-reviewed journals as the field of mobile learning with the specific reference to language learning is still in its infancy (Kukulska -Hulme & Shield, 2008).
Papers included were those covering: effects of the use of mobile technology within foreign and second language learning, learners use of technology and attitudes and/or intentions, empirical studies, overview, and/or summary of MALL and CALL (with a focus on the use of mobile technology) research, mobile technology in its relation to language learning within educational settings, published in peer-review journals and conference proceedings in the period 2007 2012, effects of technology use on the acquisition of linguistic knowledge and skills (reading, vocabulary learning, writing etc.).
All the identified articles and conference contributions were analyzed in order to assess the papers’ quality in terms of the applied theory, approach, method, and themes, using the Grönlund & Andersson (2006) model. After retrieving the relevant literature, the abstracts and the findings/conclusions of the articles were examined. Secondly, approach and method was examined so as to assess the credibility of the claims in the papers. Thirdly the main concepts were identified and organized in an author-centric matrix suggested by Webster and Watson (2002). Finally, the papers were examined to identify the language skills’ focus when using mobile technologies in second language and foreign learning and teaching. As most of the reviewed articles were retrieved from highly ranked and cited journals, the methods and approaches employed could be trusted for their quality and credibility. Initially 89 papers were found. 54 of them fulfilled the selection criteria and are thus included. The categories for the analysis of research type and method used were adapted from Grönlund and Andersson (2006).
FINDINGS Research Approach In our sample most research was descriptive (44 %), presenting various cases where technical appliances were used. We found only one theory generating study and no theory testing one (Table 1). Theories were used in 46 % of the papers, but mainly to illustrate or interpret findings. We found only one theory specifically designed to cover the MALL field (Sharples et al., 2007). Noticeably, several descriptive studies also include elements of philosophical or theoretical concepts or models.
Descriptive Describes a phenomenon in its appearance without any use of theory. 24 44% Philosophical Theoretical Theory use Theory generating Theory testing Total
Reflects upon a phenomenon without data and any use of theory.
Reflects on a phenomenon based on some theory but without empirical data Applies a theory/theories & models as a framework for the conducted study Attempts to analyze quantitative/qualitative data in a systematic manner with the use of theory with a purpose of (taking steps towards) theory building Attempt to test a theory using quantitative or qualitative data in systematic manner, i.e. just strict theory testing.
2 2 25 1 0 54 4% 4% 46% 2% 0% 100% The most commonly applied method is experiment, with 47 % of the papers (Table 2). Second most common are interpretive studies (28 %). This indicates that the MALL field is in an emerging phase, still under development and in need of more solid empirical evidence in order to underpin theoretical conclusions about how mobile technologies can assist language learning and in order to build theoretical models that are specific to this scientific field. A significant number of studies illustrate for MALL specially designed intelligent systems for individuals’ use when practicing different language skills (Chang & Hsu, 2011; Chen & Chung, 2008; Chen & Li, 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Kaneko et al., 2008 etc.), such as use of Artificial Intelligence methods and technologies. In experiments, use of such systems is frequently compared to a ‘traditional’ way of teaching and learning a language in educational settings, attempting to show results of the developed software’s use on, among others, individuals’ second language vocabulary acquisition, listening and/or speaking skills etc. Thus most of these studies present explorative and comparative knowledge. Additionally when exploring learners’ intentions and attitudes towards the use of the proposed systems and applications, evaluative knowledge is offered. The theories and models applied in the reviewed literature most often originate from previously established theories of learning, such as constructivism and situated learning theory. The experiments in the reviewed papers are hence typically applied on mature pedagogy. There are, however, also a few studies discussing mobile learning or Mobile Learning Theory or even Modern Mobile Learning Theory in attempts to formulate field-specific theory. There are also more general theories used, such as Activity Theory and Sociocultural Theory. Some theories originate from psychology, such as Cognitive Load Theory and Dual Coding Theory, and some relate directly to technology use, e.g. the commonly used Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). Many papers, however, do not exhibit any clear theoretical background. Research Content Analyzing the research topics of the papers, three major categories were found: ‘technological concepts of learning’ (e.g. Mobile-device supported peer-assisted learning), ‘technology-centered concepts’ (e.g. SMS –based learning), and ‘learning environment’ with two subgroups: ‘theoretical development’ (e.g. Contextualized meaning making) and ‘practical aspects’ (e.g. Usefulness). Table 4 provides a complete list and shows that most specific concepts, in particular those concerned with theory, are used only in one or very few papers.1 Only general concepts like MALL are widely shared. This means there is little cumulative research.
categories
1 References in the table are available from the author. Excluded due to lack of space. Chen & Li (2010) Chen & Chung (2008); Hsu et al. (2008); de Jong et al. (2010); Cheng et al. (2010); Oberg & Daniels (2012); Petersen et al. (2011); Sandberg et al. (2011); Huang & Sun (2008); Hwang & Chen (2011); Abdous et al. (2012) Chang & Hsu (2011) Chang & Hsu (2011); Chen & Chung (2008);Chen & Li (2010); Huang et al. (2012); Kaneko et al. (2008); Petersen & Markiewicz (2008); Stockwell (2007, 2010); Cheng et al. (2010); Sandberg et al. (2011) Comas-Quinn et al. (2009); Hsu et al. (2009) Godwin-Jones (2011); Chang & Hsu (2011); Chen & Chung (2008); Chen & Li (2010); Fallahkhair et al. (2007); Huang et al. (2012); Liu (2009); Petersen & Markiewicz (2008); Petersen et al. (2011); Sandberg et al.(2011); Stockwell (2007, 2008, 2010); Huang et al. (2012) Fallahkhair et al.(2007) Jian et al. (2009) Li et al. (2010) Liu (2009) Nah (2011)
Sandberg et al. (2011) g n i n r a e L f o s t p e c n o C l a c i g o l o n h c e T
Gromik (2012), Nah (2011); Fallahkhair et al. (2007)
Learning with a cell phone Language learning outside the classroom Context-aware ubiquitous learning Mobile learning Constructivism, situated learning, informal learning CALL Situated learning Knowledge gain Authentic learning Game-based learning Ubiquitous learning MALL MALL from cross-cultural perspective, constuctivism Learner-led innovation Mobile-device supported peer-assisted learning Adaptive learning Communicative mobile English learning Collaborative learning Immersive learning Self-pace instruction CALL, informal learning, game-based learning CALL Podcasting Seamless language learning design SMS –based learning Usage of multimedia/hypermedia intelligent systems Exchange of ideas through presentations Mobile blogs
Mobile applications for language learning
Language learning support via iTV and cell phones Electronic pocket dictionaries Mobile-based e-mail learning (MESLL) Sensor and handheld augmented reality(AG)-supported ubiquitous learning WAP site’s use for listening activities Added value of mobile technology English for learning t n e m n o r i v n E g n i n r a e L t n e m n o r i v n E g n i n r a e L l a t n e m p o l e v e D l a c i t e r o e h T s t c e p s A l a c i t c a r P Chen et al. (2008) DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This review sought to offer a general picture of research trends in MALL with a focus on second and foreign language acquisition published since 2007 in terms of research approaches, methods, theories and models, and results. What Research Approaches and Methods Are Used When Analysing MALL? The scientific field of mLearning and MALL generally, as well as L2 acquisition specifically, are emerging so unsurprisingly we found a large number of approaches and theories employed. Most of these originate from other areas, such as applied Cognitive Load Theory (Oberg & Daniels, 2012) and Dual-Coding Theory (Huang et al., 2012) derived from the cognitive psychology; TAM (Cheng et al., 2010) from informatics research, and a number of learning and language acquisition theories. A number of studies introduce mobile learning, MALL and even the Theory of Mobile Learning but it is often not clear how these new concepts differ from other technology-enhanced learning perspectives, for example e-learning or CALL. In general, theories are vaguely used; we found only one theory generating study (Liu et al., 2008) and no theory testing one. The dominating research approaches within MALL for the reviewed years are descriptive studies (44 %) and what we call “theory based studies” (46%), where the authors present a theory which in some way is related to their experiments or case studies. For example, de Jong et al. (2010) employ sociocultural perspectives, where emphasis is on the social motive for second language learning. There is often a lack of a clear connection between the theory and the discussion part in the reviewed papers. There are exceptions, e.g. TAM which is strictly operationalized, but then there may be other gaps; TAM, again, is not related to learning, only to use of technology.
As for the descriptive studies, a typical example is Godwin-Jones (2011) who illustrates the state of language learning applications, the devices they can be applied to, and how they are developed. The descriptive studies often include embryonic elements of philosophical or theory generating categories. For instance, the research conducted by KukulskaHulme (2009) describes findings from previous research and reflects upon the phenomenon of MALL without any explicit use of theory. ‘Experiment’ (non-strictly defined) is the most commonly applied method in the reviewed studies (47 %), followed by interpretive case studies (28 %). Together these two methods make up 75% of the research published 2007 – 2012. Most studies are small-scale, exploratory, and conducted within a short period of time, which makes them rather anecdotal in terms of reliability. This is not surprising given that the field of MALL is in its developmental experimental phase and still needs more solid empirical evidence and guidance in order to underpin conclusions about how mobile technologies can assist language learning acquisition and in order to build theoretical models specific to this field. It is hence still an open question to what extent MALL in the L2 area is indeed different from MALL in other areas.
Within What Theoretical Frameworks the Studies Have Been Carried Out? Theory use in the sample is very scattered. A large number of theories were found but most theories appeared only in one paper; we saw no cumulative theory use. Notably, many concepts appear only in one or a few papers. As one commonly cited criterion of a scientific field is that a common set of theories is applied, this finding indicates that MALL is yet only a potential field, united mainly by the studies of mobile technologies.
However, despite this character of being an emerging research field undergoing a rapid evolution there are already attempts to create field-specific theory. Sharples et al. (2007) introduces the Theory of Mobile Learning which examines how (mobile) learning stretches across locations, times, topics, and technologies. According to this theory, which is discussed and extended in several papers (Sandberg et al., 2011; Petersen et al., 2011; Hsieh et al., 2010 etc.), learning which takes place in one context can become a resource in other contexts. This effort of creating theory indicates attempts to distinguish the MALL field from other scientific learning areas and theories by raising and discussing its own theoretical perspective. Our study finds that there is, as yet, a lack of specific reference to mobile learning conceptual frameworks and theoretical models, which makes it difficult to clearly distinguish the theory of mobile learning from other learning theories and approaches. MALL theory development is work in progress.
The theories and models applied in the reviewed literature on MALL often originate from grand theories of learning, including constructivism, social constructivism. Activity Theory and Sociocultural Theory are examples often mentioned by studies on MALL (Nah et al., 2008, de Jong et al., 2010). One of the most fundamental concepts of Sociocultural Theory is that the human mind is mediated (Lantolf 2000). This mediation is often assisted by the tool use. Hence mobile technology use plays a dominant role in the process of meaning making in terms of mediated nature of human mind. MALL research often employs learning theories where such mediation is an issue, including Situated Learning Theory (Hsieh et al., 2010, Hwang & Chen, 2011), collaborative learning (Chang & Hsu, 2011; Lan et. al., 2007), self-paced learning (Oberg & Daniels, 2012), and seamless learning integrating formal and informal ways and contexts of learning (Wong et al. 2010; Wong & Looi, 2010).
In order to investigate learners’ perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, intentions, and attitudes towards the use of mobile technologies for language learning, TAM, an established theory for this purpose, is commonly applied (Chang & Hsu, 2011; Huang et al., 2012). Most studies show that learners have a positive attitude towards the use of mobile technologies for the second and foreign language acquisition, but there are differences. For example, Huang et al. (2012) show that the designed system (ubiquitous English vocabulary learning system, UEVL) was readily accepted by the students in the sample but while active students were concerned about the perceived usefulness of the system, passive ones were more concerned about the perceived ease of use of the system.
There are theories emphasizing cognitive aspects of learning, such as the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) which measures the limits of people’s working memory capacity in order to investigate individuals’ working memory load when, for example, using different specially designed intelligent systems for mobile devices for language learning (Chen et al., 2008; Chen & Chang, 2011; Oberg & Daniels, 2012). Other models applied in the reviewed papers include Moderation Model (Chen & Chang, 2011), Working Memory Model (Chen et al., 2008), and Structural Model (Huang et al., 2012). A number of papers, however, do not have any clear theoretical background but are rather descriptive. Despite the fact that many authors mention and make an attempt to define mLearning and mLearning theory in the introductions to their studies, it is often unclear how these concepts and theories are operationalized. What Aspects of MALL Are Being Researched? Studies analyzing the mobile technology’s use in the different aspects of language learning have supported the idea that mobile technology can enhance learners’ second and foreign language acquisition. Learners’ attitudes towards technologies, their intention to use it, and the various actual uses of mobile technology integrated in their second and foreign language learning is a dominating research focus (Chang & Hsu, 2011; Cheng et al., 2010 etc.). The impact of mobile technology on language learning has often been measured by individuals’ stated perceptions. This exemplifies what Orlikowski & Iacono (2001) call the proxy view of technology. Effectiveness studies focus on how this technology is viewed by individual users where the perceptive, cognitive, and attitudinal responses to technology become the critical variable in explaining mobile technology. This tool view of technology is criticized as it fails to take into account the transformational nature of technology; technology brings with it changes not only in procedures – how we do things – but also in our perceptions of what is doable or not, e.g. in terms of accessing distant materials and people. Hence technology itself plays a role in reshaping people’s preferences, perceptions, and attitudes and the new teaching and learning methods that evolve are co-constructed in a sociotechnical system rather than engineered. This is called the ensemble view of technology (Orlikowski & Iacono, 2001), and this idea of sociotechnical construction – as opposed to purely social construction – is something often lacking in MALL studies. Three key themes have been identified. First, technological concepts of learning, where the mobile learning and specifically MALL are often seen as the separate forms of learning together with more established learning theories like constructivism and collaborative learning. A number of other approaches to learning such as situated learning, mobile learning; authentic learning, self-paced learning are discussed when investigating individuals’ adoption and integration of mobile technologies in their language learning.
Second, techno-centered concepts focus on technology itself as a means of communication between the learner and the content as well as teacher and learner where a shift from sms-based learning towards the development and use of mobile language learning applications in form of intelligent multimedia tutorial systems is noticeable. Finally, the learning environment theme focuses on theoretical development and practical aspects of such environments. Much attention is paid to the different contexts of formal and informal learning, and how mobile technologies are available and can contribute to the individual’s language learning acquisition in these different situations.
Despite the fact that a number of authors attempt to define and use the concept of MALL as an independent scientific field, language learning with the support of mobile devices is often seen as a part of CALL (Chang & Hsu, 2011; Sandberg et al., 2011 etc.), mobile-(assisted) learning (Hsu et al., 2008; de Jong et al., 2010). This conceptual ambiguity indicates that the field of MALL needs more conceptualized knowledge in the form of field-specific definitions, theories, models, and solid evidence on how the use of mobile technology can assist second and foreign language acquisition. In What Ways does the Use of Mobile Technology Facilitate the Acquisition and Development of Linguistic Knowledge and Language Skills? In terms of the gained linguistic knowledge and skills, most of the reviewed papers examine vocabulary acquisition, listening and speaking skills, and language acquisition in more general terms. The review finds several suggestions for language learning benefits in the use of MALL, such as integrating the mobile technology in both formal and informal contexts; the ‘fun’ moment when engaging learners in authentic learning contexts; the learners’ contribution to the creation of the learning content; the use of mobile devices to support the practice of achieving listening and speaking skills effectively etc. Often the usefulness of the mobile technology use for vocabulary acquisition is measured by surveying learners’ attitudes. There are also a number of studies attempting to analyze the outcome in terms of learners’ language proficiency. However, as most studies are implemented within a short period of time and involve a small number of participants, results are yet inconclusive in this respect. Studies focusing on grammar learning, pronunciation and writing skills are underrepresented in the reviewed literature. However there are the papers which analyze mobile technology applications on language acquisition in general terms (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007; Fallahkhair et al., 2007; Petersen & Markiewicz, 2008, Liu et al., 2008; Cheng et al., 2010; Abdous et al., 2012; Oberg & Daniels, 2011; Hsu, 2012), often indicate positive attitudes towards the mobile technology use and suggest better results in terms of language proficiency. Very little attention is devoted to individuals’ language learning strategies and learning styles when employing mobile devices for their language learning. This knowledge can have a crucial impact on both educators, when for example designing language learning activities adopting mobile devices (development of new applications and intelligent tutorial systems for mobile devices for language learners) and learners, as they can achieve higher proficiency.
Are There Research Challenges in the Field of MALL Research that Require Further Investigation and What Can Be Suggested for the Further Research? There is a lack of empirical studies providing concrete evidence on how the mobile technology use can enhance individual’s language learning results. In order to ensure reliability longer studies and larger test groups are required.
In terms of language knowledge and skills, more experimental cases testing more specifically how mobile technology can assist and improve learners’ writing process, reading comprehension, pronunciation performance, and second language grammar acquisition are needed.
Moreover, empirical research investigating the possible changes in individuals’ learning strategies when employing mobile devices in their language learning is needed in order to be able to make the language acquisition process more effective and to be able to influence the second and foreign language proficiency results. It would also be beneficial to analyze the interconnection between individuals’ learning strategies, learning styles, and use of mobile technology. Such knowledge would make an important contribution not only to educators and learners but also to systems developers. From a pedagogical point of view, research on how the use of mobile technology affects individuals’ time management when learning a new language is needed to understand if this technology can open additional learning possibilities, for example in terms of engaged time.
Overall, more theory generating research developing mobile learning theory and constructing new theoretical models in MALL is needed to be able to distinguish the field from other kinds of technology-assisted learning, such as CALL. REFERENCES Abdous, M., Facer, B.R., Yen, C.-J. (2012). Academic effectiveness of podcasting: A comparative study of integrated versus supplemented use of podcasting in second language classes. Computers and Education, 58, 43-52.
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Chang, C.-K., & Hsu, C-K. (2011). A mobile-assisted synchronously collaborative translation-annotation system for English as a foreign language (EFL) reading comprehension. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(2), 155-180.
Chen, N.-S., Hsieh, S.-W., Kinshuk (2008). Effects on short-term memory and content representation type on mobile language learning. Language Learning and Technology, 12(3), 93-113.
Cheng, S.-C., Hwang, W.-Y., Wu. S.-Y., Shadiev, R.,& Xie, C.-H. (2010). A mobile device and online system with contextual familiarity and its effects on English learning on Campus. Educational Technology and Society, 13(3), 93-109. Chen, I.-J., & Chang C.-C. (2011). Content presentation modes in mobile listening tasks: English proficiency as a moderator.
Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(5), 451-470. de Jong, T., Specht, M., & Koper, R. (2010). A Study of Contextualised Mobile Information Delivery for Language Learning.
Educational Technology & Society, 13(3), 110–125. Godwin-Jones, R. (2011). Emerging Technologies. Mobile Apps for Language Learning. Language Learning and Technology, 15(2), 2-11.
Institute of Information & Mathematical
Sciences (IIMS), Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand s.ahmed@massey.ac.nz
Institute of Information & Mathematical
Sciences (IIMS), Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand d.p.parsons@massey.ac.nz ABSTRACT There is growing interest from science educators and researchers to develop technology-assisted inquiry based learning environments in the domain of school science education. Traditionally, school science education has been dominated by deductive and inductive styles of enquiry investigations, while the abductive style of inquiry investigation has previously been sparsely explored in the literature related to technology enhanced learning. We have therefore designed and evaluated a mobile learning application „ThinknLearn‟ for the abductive style of inquiry investigation. This study uses the M3 evaluation framework for evaluating this application with high school science students. The results indicated in this paper showed improvements in the students‟ understanding of the learning domain as well as developing their positive attitudes towards mobile learning.
Author Keywords Abductive, inquiry based learning, mobile learning, science education, technology-assisted learning INTRODUCTION Inquiry based learning is a pedagogical approach in which learners get knowledge through exploration and investigation with authentic situations, and develop their higher level thinking skills (Lim, 2004; Shih et al., 2010). It is suggested that these learning activities foster learners‟ motivation and interest in science (van Joolingen & Zacharia, 2009). Rapid advances in digital technology have increasingly attracted the interest of science educators and researchers for developing systems to support learning experiences about the sciences. In recent years, the use of mobile technologies has increasingly supported access to web-based contents on-the-go “anywhere, anytime” because of their portability (Svetlana & Yonglk-Yoon, 2009). Further, these technologies not only support the learning experience inside the school (e.g. lab, classroom, library) but allow learners to perform inquiry based learning activities in natural environments (e.g. park, woodland, museum) (Rogers et al., 2005). This is due to the affordances of these technologies that offer many different levels of engagement (Looi et al., 2010). This makes it possible to build learning environments that can enable inquiry based learning activities in multiple contexts.
In the literature related to school sciences, a number of mobile science inquiry based learning applications have been discussed which reflect the diversity of inquiry investigations and their use in both indoor and outdoor settings. Among these, the Ambient Wood Project (Rogers et al., 2005) and Savannah (Facer et al., 2004) are well-known mobile science projects in which learners are engaged in science learning activities by exploring virtual or natural environments in outdoor settings. There are some other recent mobile science projects in which learners are involved in both indoor and outdoor learning activities such as LET‟s Go! (Vogel et al., 2010) and nQuire (Sharples et al., 2011). For indoor school settings, BioKIDS Sequence (Parr, Jones, & Songer, 2004) and WHIRL (Yarnall, Shechtman, & Pennel, 2006) use mobile technologies in science classrooms in order to support more frequent assessment practices. There are many studies (Chen et al., 2008; Huang, Lin, & Cheng, 2010; Shih et al., 2010) showing that the participants enhanced knowledge significantly when they were equipped with mobile learning applications as compared to the traditional ways of science learning. Specifically to hypothesis formation activities, there are some studies found in the literature that highlight the importance of technology-assisted environments which can help students to construct scientific hypotheses and their explanations during science inquiry investigations (Mulder et al., 2010; Oh, 2011; Peker & Wallace, 2011).
Most of these mobile science learning applications follow a hypothetico-deductive or inductive means of inquiry investigation in which learners are required to process ideas (or hypotheses) (Grandy, & Duschl, 2007). In contrast, abductive scientific inquiry emphasizes the development of hypotheses observed from the natural environment (Oh, 2011). In the technology enhanced learning literature, this kind of inquiry has not been previously exploited (Grandy & Duschl, 2007; Oh, 2011). Since no previous studies have demonstrated the benefits of mobile learning in hypothesis formation activities in the context of abductive science inquiry investigations, this provides us with an opportunity to explore some new approaches to technology-assisted learning in the sciences. ABDUCTIVE SCIENCE INQUIRY In inquiry based learning, one of the important learning activities is to provide scientific explanations of natural phenomena. An abductive science inquiry is also implemented in a similar way that leads learners towards new explanations on the basis of background theories and observations (Raholm, 2010). In this trait of inquiry, learners are not sure about the conclusions but they get some possible explanations of a given problem, and those potentially possible explanations guide learners to construct some meaningful learning (Eriksson & Lindstorm, 1997). Substantially, this is the essence of abduction that it starts with the incomprehensive nature of explanation and concludes with the construction of satisfactory new knowledge by relating observed phenomena and the underlying concepts of a given domain (Raholm, 2010).
The concept of abduction was coined by C.S.Peirce (1839-1914) who classified abduction as a form of inference. He further explained that the logic of scientific inquiry is divisible into three fundamental modes of inference (Raholm, 2010): (1) deduction or explicative inference (2) induction or evaluative inference and (3) abduction or innovative inference. The following example, taken from our domain of study, will show the relationships more clearly. Here, the ideas relate to black surfaced tins (cans) containing hot water losing heat more quickly than white or shiny surfaced tins. In these examples, the Case (Hypothesis), Result (Observation) and Rule (Condition or Suggestion) are defined to show the differences in order.
Deduction: Rule–The water particles in a black surfaced tin vibrate faster than the other tins.
Case– A black surfaced tin absorbs more heat energy than the other tins.
Result–A black surfaced tin cools more quickly.
Induction: Case–A black surfaced tin absorbs more heat energy than the other tins.
Result–A black surfaced tin cools more quickly.
Rule–The water particles in a black surfaced tin vibrate faster than the other tins.
Abduction: Rule–The water particles in a black surfaced tin vibrate faster than in the other tins.
Result– A black surfaced tin cools more quickly.
Case– A black surfaced tin absorbs more heat energy than the other tins.
From these examples, it can be observed that in both deduction and induction, a Case (Hypothesis) is processed with either a Rule or a Result to generate the other component, while in abduction, the Rule and Result are used together to find a Case. This trait of abduction is well-suited to inquiry problems in which learners are challenged to formulate scientific hypotheses and explain natural phenomena (Oh, 2011). Therefore, science educators and researchers have recently begun to study the process of hypothesis generation in the context of abductive inquiry investigations. THINKNLEARN: A MOBILE WEB APPLICATION In consultation with the science teachers from a local high school, we agreed on one of the science inquiry topics from the national standard science curriculum as the experimental context to test a mobile learning application that supports abductive inquiry. In this experiment, three tins with different surface colours are filled with boiling water in order to compare the way they radiate heat energy. Tin A is painted white, tin B black and tin C is shiny (unpainted). Learners have to formulate a hypothesis from collecting data about these tins and then explain it further as depicted in Figures 1a and 1b (further details about the application can be found in Ahmed, Parsons & Mentis (2012)).
This mobile web application „ThinknLearn‟ follows the AIM (Abductive Inquiry Model) (Oh, 2011) which includes four phases; exploration, examination, selection and explanation. In the exploration phase, the application asks about the temperature of the various tins which were recorded by the students at a particular time interval after pouring boiling water in these tins as shown in Figure 1a. After submitting all values for the given tins, the application poses a series of Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) regarding the collected values of these measures one-by-one in the examination phase. This feature makes students use their observational abilities to answer the given questions. Further, it gives suggestions based on the answers chosen by the students. This question-suggestion module of the application guides students towards a point where they are able to formulate hypotheses about the given measures and understand the knowledge presented in this application. These context-sensitive suggestions are generated from an ontology which may lead the students to think about the various aspects of heat energy related to different coloured surfaces. The ontology is used for the representation of the domain of interest (Uschold & Gruninger, 2004).
In the selection phase, students are asked to select one of the appropriate hypotheses about the observed phenomena as depicted in Figure 1b. There are two hypotheses defined in this application; one is related to the vibration of the water particles and the loss of heat energy from the different coloured tins while the second is about the heat absorption and the loss of heat energy from the different coloured tins. The application uses a random function to ask about one of these hypotheses. In addition, the application extracts all the possible hypotheses including one correct and other three distracters by using the domain ontology and its inter-related concepts. At the end, students express their complete explanations of the observed phenomena in the explanation phase.
EVALUATION It is suggested in (Sharples, 2009) that mobile learning applications evaluation can inform systems by examining how the learning activity and the underlying technology can be developed to enhance learning and offer new learning opportunities. For the purposes of evaluation, part of the M3 evaluation framework (Vavoula et al., 2009) is used in this study. This framework consists of three levels of granularity (Vavoula & Sharples, 2009); Micro, Meso and Macro. However, in this study, only two levels (i.e. Micro and Meso) are applied as defined in Table 1. The reason for not considering the Macro level at this stage is because this level is used to examine the longer term impact of the new technology on established learning practices (Vavoula et al., 2009). At this stage of the research, this level of evaluation is not yet possible.
Micro Level Meso Level
Technology usability Individual and group learning activities (Hypotheses Formation) Mobile learning experience as a whole Learners‟ cognitive skills and learning performance
Questionnaire Semi-structured group discussion Pre-Post tests (Experimental and Control groups) Experimental Design The rationale for this experimental design is to evaluate „ThinknLearn‟. Evaluation at the Micro level includes the technological usability and utility of the application. The utility covers the guidance towards the construction of hypotheses about the underlying domain while the usability focuses on the capability of the software product to be understood, learned, used and attractive to the user, when used under specified conditions (Bevan, 2001). Three ISO metrics including learnability, operability and understandability are used (ISO, 2003) for that purpose. In addition, for exploring the quality of learners‟ learning experiences in a mobile learning context, three „softer‟ metrics of quality are applied; metaphor, interactivity and learning content (Parsons & Ryu, 2006). These aspects are used in order to identify the quality of the learning experiences of the learners during such mobile learning activities (Parsons & Ryu, 2006). Evaluation at the Meso level explores learners‟ educational aspects such as mobile learning experiences, cognitive thinking skills and learning performance in abductive inquiries. This experimental design uses control and experimental groups to compare learning outcomes. A control group performed the heat energy experiment in the science laboratory using a “pre-test -> heat energy experiment -> post-test” method, where the participants carried out the learning activities without using „ThinknLearn‟. The experimental group used the application „ThinknLearn‟ while performing the same experiment in the science laboratory using a “pre-test -> heat energy experiment + using ThinknLearn -> post-test” method. The learning activities involved pre and post tests around hypothesis formation activities in the context of abductive science inquiry. These tests consist of MCQs and open-ended question which assessed learners‟ knowledge about the topic covered in their science class.
This experiment was a between-subject design. The two ways of generating hypotheses and improving learning are considered as the independent variables; using the application „ThinknLearn‟ versus the traditional approach, while the dependent variable is learning performance in this experiment. The measurement of the learning performance assesses how well each participant has learnt the given science content (i.e. heat transfer energy) while performing abductive science inquiry investigations.
Participants A total of 161 students from six science classes voluntarily participated in this experiment. They were all NCEA level 1 science students, from Albany Senior High school, Auckland, aged 15-16 years. One of the groups was treated as an experimental group which comprised 86 students from three science classes. The other 75 students were a control group. In the experimental group, 86 students filled in the questionnaire and participated in group discussions while 81 students participated in pre-post activities. In the control group, 75 students were involved in pre-post activities without using „ThinknLearn‟.
For the distribution of the groups (i.e. experimental and control), science teachers were insistent on keeping the class structure intact. Therefore, students could not be randomly assigned to any of the groups. However, three classes apiece were selected as experimental and control groups respectively. In each class, there were previously 8-9 sub-groups for performing their science classroom activities. So, we continued with this distribution and conducted this experiment in the second week of February, 2012.
Apparatus Both groups were provided with three different coloured tins; Black, Shiny (Silver), and White. In addition, the experimental group was equipped with WiFi enabled mobile devices. The control group was required to perform the experiment in the traditional way (i.e. without any mobile devices). Both groups had used the same concepts related to the given topic (i.e. heat energy transfer) which were already covered in their earlier classes. For the experimental group, the „ThinknLearn‟ application was used to assist the participants to understand those concepts using their mobile devices. For pre and post activities, a MCQ quiz was provided with the instructions according to each group. Further, a questionnaire was also given to each participant in the experimental group, to investigate their individual learning experiences when using the application. Procedure Initially, science teachers introduced the information about the experiment, the purpose of the study, and the data collection process for each group. Both groups of participants were first asked to answer the pre-test that consisted of four MCQs. Following this, they were required to perform the heat energy transfer experiment as depicted in Figure 2. In this experiment, they found some data values related to each tin. These data values helped them to understand some key concepts discussed in the given topic. At the end of the experiment, they were asked again to answer the same MCQs with the addition of one open-ended question related to the hypothesis, with its explanation. This open-ended question was used to understand how well the participants engaged in the learning and thinking process during the inquiry investigation. For evaluating the usability and the utility of the application, experimental group participants were also required to individually rate a nine-question questionnaire on a five-point Likert scale. They were also involved in semistructured group discussions. In these discussions, participants were posed three questions which were related to the usability and the softer aspects of the application.
Abeer Alnuaim University of the West of
England Abeer.alnuaim@uwe.ac.uk
Praminda Caleb-Solly University of the West of
England praminda.calebsolly@uwe.ac.uk
Christine Perry University of the West of
England Christine.Perry@uwe.ac.uk ABSTRACT The increasing adoption of smart phones and tablets has opened up many opportunities for the use of new technologies in ways that can benefit. The challenge is to try and match the technology to educational activities that can be adapted to students’ current practices and levels of ability, thus enriching their learning experience. Many higher education students’ assignments require critical thinking and analysis and students with rudimentary skills need a high level of guidance and support. This paper presents the background to an intervention, which is currently in the early stages of design, to develop students’ critical thinking skills using location-based mobile learning. It is hoped that this intervention, which will involve the use of a mobile application, will enrich students’ independent learning experiences by providing contextually relevant knowledge to enhance their analysis in various situations. Author Keywords Location-based, critical thinking, mobile application.
INTRODUCTION
Mobile learning has become a burgeoning area of research in recent years. It is gaining increasing attention with the
advancement of mobile technologies and the widespread use of smartphones and tablet PCs. It has been applied within
many disciplines such as Science (Hwang et al., 2009; de-Marcos et al., 2010), Computing (Hwang et al., 2010; Yau and
Joy, 2008), and Languages (Chen and Hsu, 2008; Guerrero et al., 2010) to name but a few. Research has been conducted
both in schools and higher education. However, in comparison with secondary education, there is relatively little research
regarding mobile learning in higher education
This paper presents an intervention currently being designed to develop students’ critical thinking skills using locationbased mobile learning, which showcases personalisation as one of the strengths of mobile learning (Kinshuk et al., 2009). The next section of this paper briefly explains the relevance of critical thinking to this study. This is followed by a summary of the related work in the area. Next, the initial concept is introduced, together with the aim and objectives of the proposed system. Finally, the research methodology and the rationale for the adopted approach are discussed. CRITICAL THINKING As this research aims to encourage and develop students’ critical thinking and analysis, it is important to define what this means. There are several relevant definitions of critical thinking, some as early as Dewey (1933). However, for the purposes of this study one definition has been identified, Scriven and Paul’s (1987) who defined it as "the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action". Their definition shows a clear relation to Bloom’s taxonomy, linking critical thinking to the three higher levels of the taxonomy (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) (Duron et al., 2006). This definition emphasizes the multifaceted nature of critical thinking, expressed through a number of activities. These activities correspond to the assessed work carried by students in this study.
RELATED WORK This section provides a brief overview of a few selected research studies in the area of location-based mobile learning which best exemplify use in a learning environment. Chu et al. (2010) developed a location-aware mobile learning system for a natural science course for primary students. The system uses RFID tags on plants as the sensing technology. The system guides students to a particular plant encouraging them to ask questions and compare similar plants. They argue that the system promotes students’ interest in natural science and improve their learning. Shih et al. (2010) developed a mobile learning activity to guide primary students’ learning in a historic site for a social science course. They claim that students’ achievements have risen by 10%, with 90.6% of the students strongly agreeing that using the PDA, as a guide was more interesting. Yau and Joy (2008) developed a framework for a mobile context-aware and adaptive learning schedule (mCALS) tool. The framework is designed to help students plan their studies. It retrieves their context to suggest which learning material is appropriate for the student, given their preferences, and the location.
A LOCATION-BASED SITUATED LEARNING FRAMEWORK This section describes the initial concept behind this research and the motivation for applying such a system in higher education courses. Motivation and Initial Concept The idea for the research emerged from seeking to identify ways of exposing interaction design students to real world environments, similar to those in which they will eventually be designing, in order to maximise their ability to identify opportunities for innovation. However, sending students out into real-world environments with a brief to be evaluative and analytical, without the presence of a teacher, can lead to a superficial and frustrating experience, especially for students with beginning levels of analysis and limited critical thinking skills. It is not always possible for teachers to accompany students, and moreover, it might not be beneficial for developing students to have immediate input from teachers, but rather prompts to provoke the development of their own thinking.
Hence, a system that provides location-based hints and formative feedback to students could aid students’ understanding of the context they are in. Without guidance, students might miss out on key areas that may help them with analysing the situation properly. The hints could give them the beginning of a thread that leads to the development of innovative ideas. This proposed system will be designed for smart phones, providing students with structured support as they learn about their subjects in a real-world context. When students reach a pre-specified location, the application will display a detailed map identifying the various sub-locations which contains either text and/or images provided by their lecturer. These hints will be designed to aid them in widening their perspectives, developing their own ideas and in critical evaluation. The text notes will vary from simple words to questions, and in some cases to links that will open a quiz webpage; the particular content will depend on the specific aspect that the lecturer would want the students to focus on. Furthermore, to add a collaborative learning aspect to the activity, students will be able to post their comments for their lecturers and fellow students to take note of.
The motivation for developing the mobile application is as follows: • We have chosen a situated learning pedagogical approach, a research topic that has been lagging behind a location-based and context-based for mobile learning paradigm in higher education. • The application could help students stay focussed on the purpose and outcome of the activity, rather than be distracted by the process. Thus, maximising their benefit from the real world experience while still implicitly developing an understanding of the process. • Students struggling to analyse the situation and develop new ideas have the appropriate guidance from the application. • Sharing comments, ideas and maybe stories if desired, may enable students to benefit from their peers’ knowledge and different perspectives.
The initial situated learning activity will be developed for a level 2 Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) module in the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technologies at the University of the West of England. As part of their work for this module, students are required to evaluate and carry out a context-based analysis as part of a requirements gathering process for a computer-based system.
Aim and Objectives of Proposed Research The aim of this research is to investigate how smart phone applications should be designed to enable students to learn effectively in-situ.
To achieve this aim the following objectives have been identified: • To construct a prototype for a pedagogical activity assisted by a mobile device to facilitate independent study. • To consider various ways in which the prototype might enable reflection and critical thinking in a structured manner. • To review the students’ experience of using the prototype of locative media application in relation to effectiveness and usability of the system.
• To review students’ perceptions of the formative feedback provided by the mobile application. We are currently in the process of developing the working prototype.
Research Questions • How effectively can mobile learning/technologies provide students with the necessary guidance in a situated learning activity without the physical presence of the tutor/lecturer? Effectiveness will be considered in terms of improving ability for critical thinking, evaluation and synthesis. • What evaluation criteria and techniques can be used to evaluate such systems? • How can the prototype be designed so that it is easily customisable for different activities and scenarios? •
The power of mobile learning occurs in personalisation. Based on the technology available to students, to what extent can the application be personalised? Methodology A number of research methods appropriate for human-centred design, have been reviewed to inform the research design. It seems best to implement this research using an iterative design and prototyping approach to ensure a high level of usability and utility. Within this approach the following phases are considered: Requirement Gathering: In order to have a deep understanding of the current learning activity as it is carried out, and to thoroughly underpin user needs, the first phase has involved a number of activities: • A secondary literature review of mobile learning, applications and technologies, giving a comprehensive knowledge of the current state of the art. This knowledge is helping to shape the design and trigger ideas for the system. • Interviews with the stakeholders (lecturers, students, administrators) involved in study. These help to give a better understanding of the structure of the activities carried out by each participating course, how the activity and students could benefit from implementing mobile learning, and the main problems faced by students in the activity.
Interviews are significant in gathering requirements and understanding the needs of the users (Lazar et al., 2010). • A survey to give a clearer picture of student ownership and use of smartphones in the locale of this research. • Focus groups with previous students cohorts to help understand the difficulties faced by students when performing the activity prior to this research. • A review of previous submitted coursework and feedback from lecturers on the work to give a better understanding of the weak points in students’ work and the areas in which support is most needed.
• A comprehensive review of the relevant technology to identify suitable technologies to be adopted for the system. Theoretical Framework Development: The focus of this phase is to develop the details within a framework, based on the outcomes of the first phase. One significant framework that has been identified as being particularly relevant is the work of Ryu and Parsons (2008). Using this framework, the design of the requirements has been derived using the information gathered from interviews with the HCI lecturers.
System Design and Prototyping
In this research, an iterative design and prototyping approach is being followed. Conceptual design enables the
translation of requirements into a conceptual model. A conceptual model is “ a high-level description of how a system is
organised and operates”
Prototyping is an effective way to discuss design ideas with stakeholders. It helps in testing technical feasibility, understanding requirements, testing and evaluating, and assuring design compatibility (Rogers et al., 2011). The iterative design and prototyping approach is a cyclic process of defining requirements, designing, coding, and testing.
As part of iterative approach of this project, paper prototypes, task flow models, and mock-ups are being implemented. System Evaluation and Usability Studies Usability testing will be performed on early prototypes of the system. This will include paper prototypes to test early concept through to working prototypes in the lab and in situ. Conducting a valid evaluation of mobile technologies presents a range of challenges in the field. This research is exploring a range of methods and it is envisaged that this will be a significant contribution.
Other methods for usability studies will also be employed such as observations and diary study methods. A set of appropriate usability criteria will be identified for the usability evaluation studies.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK This paper outlines the background to the research being conducted in the area of location-based learning using mobile technology. The initial concept described in this paper is being designed to address the key components of a successful situated learning experience; this includes the necessity for the experience to take place in an authentic setting, in terms of contexts and activities, and to incorporate an element of collaboration between learners.
The application is focussed on helping students to develop their skills for critical thinking and analysis in real- world situations, and as such our priority in the first instance is to develop a clear theoretical framework that enables this. In taking a human-centred approach to the design we will be adopting an iterative design process to review the students’ experience of using the locative media application considering the effectiveness and usability of the system, which will be critical to its success. We have completed the requirements gathering phase, translated the findings into an initial design concept and are in the process of developing the prototype. As this work progresses we hope to better understand how smart phone applications should be designed to enable students to learn effectively in-situ.
Yau, J., & Joy, M. (2009). A MOBILE AND CONTEXT-AWARE LEARNING SCHEDULE FRAMEWORK FROM A PEDAGOGICAL PERSPECTIVE – AN INTERVIEW STUDY. IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning,Barcelona, Spain. 189-196.
Johan Eliasson Department of Computer and Systems Sciences
Stockholm University, Sweden
je@dsv.su.se ABSTRACT Contextual learning activities supported by mobile devices are designed to include some kind of interaction with the physical environment. However, students may place the mobile devices in the foreground of interaction rather than interacting with the physical environment. We understand this as a problem of human-computer interaction, or more specifically of human-device interaction. This leads to the research question: How do we design for contextual learning supported by mobile devices? We approach this question from a design-based research perspective, where we design and evaluate contextual mobile learning activities together with teachers and students in four iterations. The contributions of this thesis are (1) a review of contextual mobile learning research, (2) a conceptualisation of contextual mobile learning from the perspective of human-device interaction, and (3) a model of human-device interaction that can be used in designing contextual mobile learning activities.
Author Keywords Human-Computer Interaction, Design-Based Research, Mobile Learning INTRODUCTION The main reasons for introducing mobile devices to learning activities outside the classroom is that it enables new learning experiences, since it can place learning in authentic contexts, support peer collaboration, and motivate learning (Wijers, Jonker, & Drijvers, 2010). Simultaneously, one challenge of introducing mobile devices to learning activities is that the novel technology might detract from the new learning experiences (see Figure 1). This is the challenge focused upon in this thesis. We approach this challenge from a human-computer interaction perspective, where we arrive at a model for designing formal learning activities outside the classroom through an iterative process of design and analysis. MOBILITY AND LEARNING In the research field of mobile learning many different research traditions are coming together. These traditions bring different understandings of what is meant by mobility and by learning.
Frohberg (2008) presents four different views on mobile learning, where concrete mobile learning projects may be related to more than one of these views. In the first view, mobile learning is about accessing learning material from anywhere, for example on the bus. The mobile device is what makes this possible and learning is understood as transfer of information.
In the second view, it is the learning environment that is mobile. In this view we find games for learning, run on mobile devices. The learning tasks are either open ended or structured, with either not defining what is meant by learning or by relying on formal learning. As the learning environment is mobile in this view, no other media than the mobile devices are needed.
In the third view, it is the learner that is mobile. This view is about moving outside the classroom, to another physical environment where the understanding of learning is dependent on this physical environment. The role of the mobile technology is to allow the learner to connect with the physical environment, for example by using sensors. In the last view, the learning community is mobile. The mobile technology is used for accessing and creating a common learning environment, which means that learning is seen as co-created.
This paper is framed within the third view where the learner is mobile, more specifically the learner is mobile primarily in the physical environment. For this view of mobile learning we adopt the concept of contextual mobile learning. Contextual Mobile Learning Brown et al. (2010) describe location-based and contextual mobile learning as learners being continually mobile: “Rather than seeing learners as physically present in a certain place, such as a classroom or a museum, learners are active in different contexts and frequently change their learning contexts.” (p. 3). Learners are mobile in the physical environment, however from looking at previous projects we see that it differs to what extent the physical environment is integrated in the learning activities. From a review of mobile learning research projects (Frohberg, Göth, & Schwabe, 2009) complemented by the review by Brown et al. (2010) we identify previous projects where learners are mobile in physical environment. These are projects where the physical environment is used as a backdrop, like Savannah (Facer et al., 2004) where children learned about lions by playing lions on a virtual savannah. There are also projects that uses objects in the physical environment, like MyArtSpace (Vavoula, Sharples, Rudman, Meek, & Lonsdale, 2009) where children could collect virtual items in a museum. And there are projects that integrates the physical environment to a large extent, like Ambient Wood (Rogers et al., 2004) where children explored a physical environment that had some added digital properties, as for example you could listen to photosynthesis in trees. Two recent projects focus on mathematics outside the classroom. These are MobiMaths (Tangney et al., 2010) and MobileMath (Wijers, et al., 2010), with low to medium integration of the physical environment.
The learning activities on geometry reported on in this thesis have a medium integration of the physical environment. RESEARCH MOTIVATION The review paper by Frohberg et al. (2009) reports that roughly one third of mobile learning research projects strive to move learning away from the classroom to more natural environments. In the same review paper the authors noted that there is “very little work which discusses the placement of mobile tools as means of control” (p. 318) and that “[v]ery few Mobile Learning projects with physical context explicitly considered, positioned or focused the usage of mobile technology as instruments to gain transparency and steer flexible learning activities there.” (ibid, p. 318). As noted in these research projects the field trials are done with small groups of students to facilitate collaborative learning. Some of these projects use mobile devices to not only present information about tasks to users, but also to control the flow of the learning activity in detail. This type of design is related to device-centric approaches that lead small groups of learners to place the mobile devices in the foreground of interaction, at the expense of their social interaction and interaction with the environment. It is notable that mobile devices in the foreground of human interaction are just reported on in peripheral notes in research reports from these projects, and consequently what it means that human-device interaction is in the foreground in contextual mobile learning activities is seldom questioned or understood as a main research problem (Göth et al., 2006).
Related work A few projects have explicitly addressed the problem of mobile devices in the foreground of interaction. Cole and Stanton (2003) compares projects they have been contributing to; KidStory, Hunting the Snark and Ambient Wood, and report that the students had problems focusing on anything else but the mobile device. Their analysis showed that the problem was that the device was displaying a continuous flow of information and their solution was to deliver information only occasionally.
Hsi (2003) reports from observations on a mobile museum guide that there is a risk that the learning opportunities offered by the physical space is turned into “‘heads-down’ one-way transmission of information via a tiny display” (p. 317). The solution offered was careful instructional design. In the project Caerus (Naismith, Sharples, & Ting, 2005) focus on the mobile tourist guide was reported to be a problem, with “a large amount of ‘heads-down’ interaction” (p. 58). Rethinking implementation and investigate both technical and non-technical navigational aids were the suggested solutions. Göth et al. (2006) report on a campus guide called the Mobile Game that: “In the current version of the MobileGame the focus of the players is permanently on the device.” (p. 159). They suggest the following five solutions: plan for discontinuous usage, plan focus switches, use technologies only if it brings added value, do not use animations if the application is in the background, and reduce features as much as possible. In a follow-up study Göth and Schwabe (2010) redesigned the automatic updates of screen contents to students manually pushing an update button. The change resulted in a marginal improvement in how much the students were distracted by the device.
This review of related research work suggests that mobile devices in the foreground of students’ interaction is a problem that is noted by other researchers. However, with one exception the solutions suggested are not elaborated. In the only exception, Göth et al. (2006), the suggested solutions are not implemented and in the follow-up (Göth & Schwabe, 2010) the evaluation resulted in only a marginal improvement. RESEARCH QUESTION Contextual learning activities supported by mobile devices are designed to include some kind of interaction with the physical environment. However, students may place the mobile devices in the foreground of interaction rather than interacting with the physical environment. We understand this as a problem of human-computer interaction, or more specifically of human-device interaction. This problem leads to the research question: How do we design for contextual learning supported by mobile devices? RESEARCH GOAL • Contribute to a conceptualisation of contextual mobile learning from the perspective of human-device interaction.
Develop a model of human-device interaction that can be used in designing contextual mobile learning activities. RESEARCH METHOD In collaboration with a local primary school we have developed a design of a contextual mobile learning activity in four iterations; with one iteration per year. The first two iterations were framed within a project on geometry followed by the last two iterations within a project on biology (Figure 2). In all four of the design iterations we worked together with teachers and students in developing and refining a sequence of learning activities supported by mobile devices. In approaching the research questions we designed and implemented contextual learning activities, by adopting design practices from design-based research (Design-Based Research Collective2003), where we relied on co-design (Penuel, Roschelle, & Shechtman, 2007) for the design iterations (see Figure 2). By design practices we refer to working in iterative cycles together with teachers in creating a sketch and later a prototype that can be tested and eventually deployed in schools. The Design-Based Research Collective (2003) discusses design research in education and states that “[t]he challenge for design-based research is in flexibly developing research trajectories that meet our dual goals of refining locally valuable innovations and developing more globally usable knowledge for the field.” (p. 7). The DesignBased Research Collective (2003) argues that design-based research blends empirical education research with the theorydriven design of learning contexts. Design-based research has proven a suitable methodological approach for the field of mobile learning, since design-based research attempts to combine the intentional design of interactive learning contexts with the empirical exploration of our understanding of these contexts and how they interact with the individuals (Hoadley, 2004). Design-based research follows an iterative cycle of identifying, developing, building and evaluating similar to that of interaction design processes. Figure 2 shows the design-based research process as design and evaluation phases, where the outcome of the activity design (introduction, outdoor activity and indoor activity) is shown for the design phase and the outcome of guidelines or a model is shown for the evaluation phase.
ANALYSIS AND PRELIMINARY RESULTS The analysis relied on different methods. Initially we used interaction analysis (Jordan & Henderson, 1995) where three researchers that had been part of the data collection in the field worked together on recorded video and audio material. In the first iteration we used the analysis foci suggested by the method (Eliasson, Spikol, Cerratto Pargman, & Ramberg, 2010) and in the second study we used the analysis foci related to mobile devices in the foreground of interaction. In the second iteration we added a more detailed analysis of the video episodes where the students’ visual focus on devices was especially strong and episodes where it was notable that focus on devices was absent (Eliasson, Cerratto Pargman, Nouri, Spikol, & Ramberg, 2011). In the third analysis we transcribed interaction with devices from video data and mapped the transcription to a model of six categories of interaction we suggested (Eliasson & Knutsson, 2012). The result was a concrete measurement of to what degree the students interacted with the devices and the physical environment in the ways intended in the design of the activity (Eliasson et al., 2012). In the fourth iteration we will analyse transitions between interaction with devices and interaction with the physical environment by comparing two conditions: students identifying species of trees by using QR codes and by not using QR codes. The QR condition was designed using our model of human-device interaction. Thus we hope to see more than just marginal improvements in the QR condition over the non-QR condition.
DISCUSSION OF CONTRIBUTIONS The contributions of this thesis are (1) a review of contextual mobile learning research (2) a conceptualisation of contextual mobile learning from the perspective of human-device interaction and (3) a model of human-device interaction that can be used in designing contextual mobile learning activities.
The contribution of the model is different from other approaches in that it is developed through a design-based research approach focusing specifically at the problem of human-device interaction in contextual mobile learning. Our model is better tested than other approaches since it is evaluated empirically through design iterations and field tests with students.
Athabasca University
Athabasca, AB, Canada wfahlman@athabascau.ca ABSTRACT This paper provides an overview of a mixed methods study focusing on how registered nurses (RNs) use mobile devices for informal learning in the healthcare workplace. The significance of mobile devices as learning tools for RNs’ informal learning to inform professional development and continuing competence is discussed.
Author Keywords Informal learning, mobile devices, nurses, mixed methods, sequential explanatory INTRODUCTION In the Canadian healthcare workplace, in-person workplace-based education and training of nurses is becoming less readily accessible. This has created the need for RNs to seek other means for continuous learning for professional development and ongoing maintenance of competence (Canadian Nurses Association & Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing, 2004, p. 2). In the healthcare workplace, RNs are using mobile devices for a variety of purposes, including as learning tools (Doran, et al., 2010); however, how they use these learning tools is not well known. In response to these challenges and to address the paucity of research in this area, this mixed methods study explored how RNs use mobile devices for informal learning in the healthcare workplace. In doing so, this study adds to the theory base of informal learning and to the body of knowledge on workplace learning.
BACKGROUND In the workplace, most learning is informal in nature (Cross, 2007). Although the preparation for a job or career typically involves formal education or training, once employment is obtained, informal learning is the primary way in which skills and knowledge are sought. It includes “any activity involving the pursuit of understanding, knowledge or skill which occurs outside the curricula of educational institutions, or the courses or workshops offered by educational or social agencies” (Livingstone, 2000, p. 2).
As a regulated profession, RNs in Canada are required to maintain competency through mandated continuing education
and reflective practice for professional development (Nelson & Purkis, 2004). Moreover, the RN regulatory bodies have
moved away from clocking hours for continuing professional education participation towards continuing competency
programs where RNs have the autonomy and flexibility to identify individual learning needs and select appropriate
continuing professional education activities to meet those needs. Attendance at workplace face-to-face education and
training programs has become limited due to the barriers of “workplace budget constraints, lack of employer or
administrative support, and lack of time due to staff shortages, shift work, scheduling difficulties, and family
responsibilities”
Within the healthcare workplace, mobile devices have become more commonplace, expanding the boundaries of just-intime learning and enabling users to interact with others, connect to information of their own choosing, and capture ideas (Traxler, 2010). With the ongoing healthcare workplace challenges, it may be necessary to move from traditional models of teaching and learning and consider other pedagogical practices and learning models, including informal learning using mobile devices to assist RNs to meet their ongoing needs for professional development and continuing competence. RESEARCH PURPOSE AND QUESTIONS Within the context of the healthcare workplace, this mixed methods study was conducted to initiate and/or add to the body of research by exploring how RNs engage in informal learning using mobile devices in the healthcare workplace. The study’s research questions that were drawn from the theory on informal learning are listed below. 1. What informal learning strategies or processes do RNs engage in when using mobile devices in the healthcare workplace? 2. For what purposes do RNs employ informal learning strategies or processes using mobile devices in the healthcare workplace? 3. Are there differences between how RNs use individual and collaborative modes of informal learning with mobile devices in the healthcare workplace? 4. Is there a relationship between the age of RNs and their use of mobile devices for informal learning in the healthcare workplace? THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study’s theoretical framework is multi-faceted, drawing from theories of workplace learning and informal learning within the field of adult education, and also involving mobile devices and their use as learning tools. The workplace is an important context for the intertwining processes of learning and work (Streumer & Kho, 2006). Learning where people actually work includes the training and development perspectives of human resource development and continuing professional education (Bierema & Eraut, 2004).
Informal learning includes learning that is self-directed and intentional, incidental or unplanned learning that becomes conscious after an experience, and tacit learning that is neither intentional nor conscious (Schugurensky, 2000). Watkins and Marsick’s (1992) theory of informal and incidental learning in the workplace identifies the following characteristics: based on learning from experience; embedded in the organizational context; oriented to a focus on action; governed by non-routine conditions; concerned with tacit dimensions that must be made explicit; delimited by the nature of the task, the way in which problems are framed, and the work capacity of the individual undertaking the task; and enhanced by proactivity, critical reflectivity and creativity (p. 287). More recent models of informal and incidental learning in the workplace include the concepts of tacit/implicit knowledge, whole-person learning theory, and communities of practice (Marsick, Watkins, Callahan, & Volpe 2006). The creation of knowledge and meaning that occurs through the informal learning using mobile devices can be viewed from the perspective of cognitive and socio-cultural constructivism. Cognitive constructivism contends that learners construct new knowledge individually based on previous learning; whereas, socio-cultural constructivism asserts that knowledge is constructed collaboratively through social discourse (Crawford, 1999). Depending upon the context, either theory may help to explain the processes involved in the use of mobile devices as a tool for informal learning. Clough, Jones, McAndrew, and Scanlon (2009) explain that mobile devices as a learning tool can potentially support and enhance learner-centred control, allowing learners “to engage with both the social and the physical contexts of the learning they are undertaking … and to decide whether and how to collaborate with other learners, to pool and share resources, or simply engage in individual reflection” (p. 361).
METHODOLOGY The mixed methods, sequential explanatory research design included two phases with a quantitative online survey and qualitative interviews. The cross-sectional survey identified demographic information, informal strategies, processes, purposes, and individual/collaborative modes of informal learning of RNs who used mobile devices in the healthcare workplace. The qualitative data obtained from the semi-structured telephone interviews provided further explanations of the quantitative results. Both of these data collection methods operationalized the research questions. The population was composed of approximately 1450 diploma-prepared and practicing Canadian RNs in a Bachelor of Nursing program at a single-mode distance university in Western Canada. For the cross-sectional online survey, subjects were recruited using email. Quota sampling obtained a minimum of 15 participants reporting collaborative modes of informal learning and a minimum of 15 participants in each of the age-generational categories of Generation Y, Generation X, and Baby Boomers. 170 useable online surveys were obtained and quotas were reached. A survey questionnaire was developed containing three sections: respondents’ background information, mobile device usage, and learning modes. The strategies/processes for the informal learning mode included: (1) reflect on previous action and knowledge using notes, diary, or some other method using my mobile device; (2) learn by trial and error; (3) view a video, webcast or podcast; (4) search the Web (including the Intranet); (5) search an online database (e.g., Medline); (6) read books, magazines, and/or journals; (7) observe others on the job such as photos; (8) talking on the phone with others; (9) interacting with others via emails; (10) asking questions in a professional listserv or online community. The first seven strategies/processes were considered individual modes of informal learning while the last three processes were considered potentially collaborative modes. The purposes for informal learning using mobile devices included: (1) new procedure/treatment; (2) accessing resources for evidence-based support; (3) professional development; (4) patient/client teaching; (5) maintaining competence. The questionnaire was field tested for content validity.
From the online survey responses, interviewees were selected using maximum variation purposive sampling based on diversities in gender, generational-age, location, work setting, position, years employed as a RN, type of mobile device used, length of mobile device usage, and frequency of use for individual and collaborative modes. Purposive sampling continued until data saturation was achieved. Ten subjects were interviewed. The semi-structured interview questions were piloted prior to administration. The interviews were digitally recorded, transcribed, and member checked. As a token of appreciation, respondents completing the online survey had the option of participating in a draw for an iPad® and interviewees had the option to receive a $40 gift certificate. Ethical considerations were also addressed. Analysis of the study data included descriptive and inferential statistical analysis of the non-parametric online survey data, inductive analysis of the semi-structured interview data, and integrated analysis of both datasets. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The descriptive profile of the study RNs indicated the majority were female Baby Boomers employed for over ten years as staff nurses in urban Canadian hospitals. These RNs primarily used Smartphones in their workplaces, for less than two years. Using Rogers’ (2003) adoption categories, nearly 98% of the subjects could be considered as innovators or early adopters in terms of their mobile device use for informal learning in the healthcare workplace; a possible study limitation as the subjects may be more receptive to new technologies including mobile devices than the general nursing population. Based on a four-point Likert rating scale from never (1), sometimes (2), often (3), and always (4), Wilcoxon SignedRanks revealed statistically significant differences at the 5% level (Z= -11.312, N = 170, p=.000) indicating more subjects used the strategies/processes for informal learning without a mobile device in the healthcare workplace (M = 31.37, SD =5.15) than those using a mobile device (M=22.21, S =6.49). Such a finding is not surprising, considering as Doran et al., (2010) suggest, the use of mobile devices in nursing practice is relatively new in the healthcare workplace. The interviewees and survey respondents indicated frequent use of their mobile devices for searching the Web (M=2.88, SD=.867) and searching an online database (M=2.56, SD=.956). In the survey responses and narratives, the least used process was asking questions in a professional listserv or online community (M=1.87, SD =1.022). Berg and Chyung’s (2008) study obtained similar results with professionals using this process the least frequently for informal learning. The subjects reported participating in self-directed informal learning using their mobile devices that was planned, intentional, and conscious in response to new and changing situations in the healthcare workplaces. This experiential learning was evaluated through reflective practice. In the survey, the incidental process of trial and error was the second lowest frequency reported (M =1.90, SD=.896). Only one interviewee reported using trial and error for informal learning with a mobile device. No indications of tacit learning were found in either the quantitative or qualitative analysis. The purposes for informal learning using mobile devices cited most frequently were accessing resources for evidencebased support to promote the delivery of patient/client care and for professional development for knowledge and skills acquisition to inform their professional practice. A Chi-square test revealed that accessing resources for evidence-based support (X2 (1, N = 170) = 10.376, p = 0.001), and professional development (X2 (1, N = 170) = 7.624, p = 0.006) were statistically significant at the 5% level. As in Berg and Chyung’s (2008) study, participants may be more likely to engage in informal learning strategies/processes for gaining new knowledge that was necessary to perform at a higher level in their professional practice. Quantitatively and qualitatively, the least reported purpose of informal learning using a mobile device was for maintaining competency (X2 (1, N = 170) = 7.624, p = 0.006). The interviews suggested a general unawareness of the potential contribution of informal learning using mobile devices for professional practice competency and registration requirements. This deficit may have influenced the responses for the purpose of maintaining competency. Quantitatively, collaborative modes (M = 2.33, SD = .885) were used, on average, slightly more than individual modes (M =2.21, SD=.696). The interviewees reported using all of the individual modes for informal learning with mobile devices. Only two narrative accounts included the use of colloborative modes, interacting with others via emails and asking questions in a professional listserv or online community. However, five interviewees stated that they emailed via their mobile devices for communication purposes only with clients and peers. Relevant to these findings is the Clough et al., (2009) study on PDA and Smartphone use with informal learning that stated some participants used their devices to communicate, but lacked awareness as to their participation in collaborative informal learning. The divergence in findings suggests the need for further research. For the purposes, the Mann-Whitney U-test revealed that only professional development was not significantly different at the 5% level (U= 2365.5, p = 0.056). Interviewees reported using primarily the individual modes for the purposes of informal learning using their mobile devices to construct new knowledge based on previous learning, as described in the perspectives of cognitive constructivism. Wihak and Hall (2011) assert that individual modes are the preferred form of self-directed informal learning.
Minimal differences were found related to age-generational categories for informal learning using mobile devices in the healthcare workplaces. No differences were noted in the narrative accounts. Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed a statistically significant difference at the 5% level for only the process of interacting with other people via email (X2=6.947, p =0.021) and the purpose of professional development (X2= 6.078, p =.047) suggesting Generation Y uses this process and purpose less than the other age-generational categories. No significant differences were found among the age categories related to the individual or collaborative modes of informal learning. Livingstone’s (2000) Canada-wide survey found Canadians under the age of 24 years spent significantly more time in informal learning activities than older adults but no differences were found for the other age categories. As there were no RNs in this study under 24 years of age, the findings on frequency of use of mobile devices for informal learning related to age were similar to Livingstone’s results. The narrative accounts indicated the lack of educational resources in the healthcare workplaces influenced the use of mobile devices for informal learning. All but two of the interviewees used their own mobile devices and data service plans to engage in informal learning in their workplaces. The lack of Internet connectivity and/or lack of employer support may have influenced the interviewees’ selection of informal learning strategies/processes. Positive perceptions of efficiencies, self-confidence, patient/client safety, and reactions by patients/clients were cited by the interviewees. Also, the need for the sanctioned resources for using mobile technologies in the healthcare workplace was articulated. CONCLUSIONS In this mixed methods study, RNs expressed the importance of informal learning using mobile devices in the healthcare workplace for acquiring knowledge and skill development. Furthermore, as the use of mobile devices becomes more ubiquitous, there is the potential for this powerful tool to rapidly accelerate participation in informal learning in nursing practice. Recommendations for practice and future research include: (1) RNs acquire more information and/or education from their nursing associations on self-directed informal learning including how to apply this learning for continuing competency requirements for self-regulation and professional practice, (2) further exploration of the expressed need for sanctioned resources (3) investigations into the workplace influences (4) research into the motivations for engaging in this learning, (5) further study of individual and colloborative modes. Additionally, investigations with other professionals and longitudinal studies are needed on informal learning with mobile devices in the workplace. REFERENCES Berg, S. A., & Chyung, S. Y. (2008). Factors that influence informal learning in the workplace. Journal of Workplace
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Canadian Nurses Association, & Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing. (2004, June). Joint position statement: Promoting continuing competence for registered nurses. Retrieved from http://www.cnanurses.ca/CNA/documents/pdf/publications/PS77_promoting_competence_e.pdf Clough, G., Jones, A. C., McAndrew, P., & Scanlon, E. (2009). Informal learning evidence in online communities of mobile device enthusiasts. In M. Ally (Ed.), Mobile Learning Transforming the Delivery of Education and Training (pp. 99–112). Edmonton, AB: AU Press.
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Livingstone, D. W. (2000). Exploring the iceberg of adult learning: Findings of the first Canadian survey of informal learning practices. Informal learning in lifelong learning. Paper presented at Informal Learning and Digital Media: Constructions, Contexts and Consequences. University of Southern Denmark, Odense. Danish Research Centre on Education and Advanced Media Materials.
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Working Paper (pp. 1–8). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Streumer, J. N., & Kho, M. (2006). Work-Related Learning. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. Thousand Islands, CA: SAGE.
Traxler, J. (2010). Will student devices deliver innovation, inclusion, and transformation? Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 6(1), 3–15.
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International Journal of Lifelong Education, 11(4), 287–300. doi:10.1080/0260137920110403 Wihak, C., & Hall, G. (2011). Work-related informal learning. Centre for Workplace Skills. Retrieved from http://www.workplaceskills.ca/ Margarete Grimus
Institute for Information Systems and Computer Media
Graz, University of
Technology margarete.grimus@aon.at
Martin Ebner
Social Learning / Computer and Information
Services Graz, University of Technology martin.ebner@tugraz.at
Andreas Holzinger
Institute for Information Systems and Computer Media
Graz University of
Technology a.holzinger@tugraz.at ABSTRACT Education has become one of the biggest public enterprises in Ghana, taking about 11 percent of the GDP, enrolling about a quarter of the population in schools and other educational services (EDU 2011). The need for content, the demands of young people, requesting material for self-conducted learning, the lack of teachers, the small proportion of trained teachers and the lack of equipment in schools in rural areas are a huge challenge. The advancement of technology and high mobile penetration rates in developing countries has broadened the horizon of education. One possibility to overcome the problems is the application of the concept of mobile learning (called m-Learning). At first, it is required to describe the current situation in Ghana; this includes the identification of stakeholders as well as corresponding and influencing factors, which have to be taken in consideration when planning a holistic m-Learning-model for Ghana. MLearning implies inherently a chance in the didactical approach. In the next step, together with a group of teachers in Ghana, research will be done, aiming at the implementation of a sustainable m-Learning concept for secondary education. Integrating teachers in the first phase is a necessity, since it supports the development of a pedagogical concept, which is necessary for a change in pedagogical practice to integrate m-Learning in daily practice.
Keywords m-Learning, developing countries, educational needs, didactical change, mobile phones, educational content, content design, access to learning objects, secondary schools, teacher education, informal learning.
INTRODUCTION
To tackle educational challenges, systemic integration of ICT has been outlined as an opportunity for improving the
quality of teaching and learning as well as expanding access to learning opportunities (UNESCO 2011). Bearing in mind
that secondary school attendance and completion are strongly influenced by poverty, location and gender (EFA, 2011),
mobile based solutions help to compensate the lack of infrastructure. M-Learning has been described as having the
potential to “reach people who live in remote locations where there are no schools, teachers, or libraries”
Based on careful literature research of m-Learning projects in developing countries and former personal experience
RESEARCH QUESTIONS Primary Question Which necessary factors have to be considered for a sustainable implementation of a comprehensive area-wide mLearning concept for countries in Sub Sahara Africa (on the example of Ghana)? Subquestions Prerequisites: Technological Aspects: What are technological requirements to enable access to educational content with mobile phones? Individual Aspects: What kind of devices are currently in use? What are the requirements for content? What are the key drivers and barriers in the uptake of m-Learning services for students/teachers/school-authority? Quality in Secondary Schools and Sustainability What are the preconditions and requirements for getting access to educational content (e.g. learning objects)? What lessons could be drawn from experiences to date in Sub Sahara African countries (SSA)? What has to be implemented in the curriculum of secondary schools? How can content provided for secondary schools be alternatively offered for informal learning? How can institutions and educators create conditions for appropriate technology enhanced learning? How can teachers be prepared to enhance education by integration of m-Learning in Ghana? What are the consequences for education? IDENTIFICATION OF THE SIGNIFICANT PROBLEMS IN THE FIELD OF RESEARCH Former policies of ICT-in-education-initiatives focused on establishing PC labs in schools (and universities) to enable improved teaching and learning in classroom settings. Access to PC’s or laptops in Ghana at home is not common: 9.1% in 2010 (ITU 2011), otherwise the ratio of mobile cellular subscriptions to fixed telephone lines in Ghana is 74.3:1. Nowadays declining costs for mobile devices and data plans, the near-ubiquitous access to mobile phones, especially among the region’s youth, holds potential for expanding learning opportunities to underserved communities that are at risk of exclusion from affordable, high quality learning experiences.
Due to these facts focus of our research activities is laid on m-Learning with mobile phones in Ghana, and the needs to be
taken in consideration when planning a sustainable solution. After a careful literature research
Government / school authorities: equipment of schools (Pc labs, Wi-Fi; service, replacement, device management capability); finances; curriculum development/ teacher education (prospective teachers / in-service training), quality of education, curriculum for (secondary) schools/digital skills, approbation of projects) Infrastructure / technology: mobile devices (specification / attributes of device, costs: cell phones, smart-phones, feature-phones, other device; memory); mobile network operators: connectivity (costs: packages, prepaid airtime), rural areas: bandwidth, Internet-cafes, community buildings with free Wi-Fi Teachers: teaching skills / didactics (digital literacy, use of device); didactic of m-Learning (online communication, knowledge and evaluation of online-content, access to device outside of school) Learners / students: digital skills (digital literacy, digital reading); access to device (ownership / share; cost of data plans, access to Internet / offline use of content); language (English); interest in specific topics (out-of school-kids; peer-group-learning; communication with teacher(s) / cooperation with peers); formal learning (schools), informal learning (self motivated); policies for appropriate use
Content provider: access to appropriate content, instructional design, operating systems (standardisation);
platforms / systems, local relevance of the content, providing content for offline learning (text-based, rich
media, messaging, apps); free educational content; costs / special packages (Value Added Service, VAS,
operators offering developing countries packages with low subscription costs including learning content)
Careful research will help to understand interactions and challenges, relevance for the whole system and existing
solutions. The outcome is a framework, providing the foundations for transitions into m-Learning in Ghana.
BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE CURRENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROBLEM DOMAIN– STATE OF EXISTING SOLUTIONS
Within a dispersed population as in Ghana, mobile phones are prerequisites to implement sustainable m-Learning
solutions. For example Lauren Dawes reports, the highest level of access to a mobile phone or SIM Card amongst young
people was found in Ghana, where it reached 90%
In developing countries about 50% of m-Learning programs are designed to be compliant with feature phone technologies, while smart-phone penetration is still low. This is very important, because access to learning material via mobile phones does not only support formal settings but is often the only chance for informal learning (out of school children, girls looking for anonymous help with questions of HIV prevention etc).
PRESENTATION OF PRELIMINARY IDEAS: THE PROPOSED APPROACH AND THE RESULTS ACHIEVED SO FAR
Delivering education in Sub Sahara Africa (SSA) by using mobile phones is widely seen as an optimal solution, because
mobile networks are widely spread. Ford and Leinonen name factors as usability, accessibility, and affordability, to be of
most importance
Traxler asks: “Do we define m-Learning in terms of technologies, or user experience?” and continues “...knowing where
to find the answer becomes more important than knowing it or having it”
For the implementation two aspects are important and have to be taken in consideration in the research, based on topics from table 1 (see page 2): Technology and infrastructure, including costs, compatibility and limitations of the device, and management aspects, which include the pedagogical, training and support issues.
Since mobile devices reduce barriers to accessibility, changes in didactics and teacher education are important. Didactical skills for m-Learning are the most important topics and are addressed in the course in Ghana. Testing the platform for science and math education, www.skool.com.gh (which is a joint-project from the Ghanaian government and Intel), and the Ghanaian e-learning portal for kids: http://www.e-learningforkids.org/ allows gathering some experience for later practice in classroom. Www.Skool.com.gh offers various learning sequences aligned to Ghana’s new education curriculum. Based on practical work in the course and during the last week in classroom practice, the experience will be evaluated and the outcome integrated in the proposal of the framework for m-Learning in Ghana.
SKETCH OF THE APPLIED RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Criteria for investigations are: specific educational situation, practical usability, theoretical applicability and viable sustainability in Ghana: • Scrutinizing literature prior to quantitative and qualitative research: • Identifying best-practice projects by investigating relevant literature on successful ICT projects in SSA (e.g.: MoMaths [mobile learning for Mathematics Project, developed with Nokia], Mxit, or Mobile4Good [M4G], mobile phone games dealing with health education (HIV); • Figuring out details: how they contribute to solve specific problems; identifying “gaps” (facts not noted so far); • Scrutinizing and analyzing evaluation-methods of m-Learning projects, identifying best-practice approaches; • Transferring the findings to (prospective) work on mobile phones, • Quantitative research: structured questionnaires, surveys to investigate teachers digital skills and expectations of m-Learning (field research in Ghana) • Qualitative research: individual interviews (field research, secondary school -teachers, school-authority, telecommunication- networks), group interviews.
Research in the first stage is focussed on teacher education, regarding teachers’s kills and curriculum matters. Structured interviews with stakeholders contribute to the findings. Surveys are designed according the topics outlined in Figure 1 (see page 2). An important question stresses content design, which has to be reflected on the findings related to the topics of access and availability. As example to address specific topics the research of Ebner points out trends and behaviour of young people using mobile devices (Ebner, 2102). The overall result is presented in the framework, to indicate the status of readiness for implementation with the teachers of the course.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PH.D. PROJECT'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM SOLUTION
This project should help to provide deeper insights in the different problems and contribute to a better understanding
what has to be taken in consideration when planning a sustainable solution for m-Learning. A closer look at the
curriculum (information literacy, critical reading and problem solving) will help to figure out challenges in the field of
pedagogical awareness and content. In rural areas still exists the problem of delivering qualified education, on the other
hand the demand of education is increasing, and has to address the learning needs of young people from poor rural
communities. For the youth in rural areas, taking advantage of mobile phone ubiquity, m-Learning is a way to
incorporate education into their lives when they may have previously been denied the opportunity. As mobile phones are
accessible to communities in remote areas, they also extend the reach of mobile-enabled educational resources
Learning with mobile phones will increase access to learning material in Ghana in many ways:
• Affordable access to study material (up-to date-information, no printing costs, replacing textbooks, easy to
repeat content and instructions, cooperation with peers and in groups, even when not able to attend school)
• Teachers support (access to up-to-date-resources, cooperation with other teachers)
• Motivation for families, learning material is available in the household
• Girls, often not allowed to continue school-attendance, are able to access learning material
• HIV information can be achieved anonymously (important for teenager, girls)
DISCUSSION OF HOW THE SUGGESTED SOLUTION IS DIFFERENT, NEW, OR BETTER AS COMPARED TO
EXISTING APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM
Osiakwan pointed out the importance for young people to use their chance to access online content in the remotest parts
of Ghana by using mobile phones, therefore the development of a model for sustainable integration of m-Learning in
Ghana is necessary
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK In this paper an overview of the current situation in Ghana was given and the opportunity of m-Learning integration in the current educational system outlined. The rapid growth of mobile phone access potentially opens up new ways for addressing the systemic educational challenges in Ghana. Bearing in mind that a holistic sustainable m-Learning model for Ghana has to be developed, the next approach is to integrate the results of field studies. The outcomes of these research studies will be taken into account for further implementations. We assume that learning with mobile phones seems to be an ideal solution to tackle the needs in education in developing countries – on the example of Ghana. A possible follow up research project: Mobile phones (and today more and more smart-phones) are widely available amongst children in European countries. Due to the fact that these mobile phones are mainly banned from the classroom, it could be a chance, to learn from the experience in Ghana, how the use of these devices might transform the educational practice in secondary schools in the future. EDU 2011. Republic of Ghana, Report No. 59755. Education in Ghana, Improving Equity, Efficiency and Accountability of Education Service Delivery, (pp.12-17; p 92) http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/EdStats/GHAstu11.pdf EFA 2011. Education for all, Global Monitoring Report, Regional Overview: sub-Saharan Africa (p.2) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001913/191393e.pdf Ghanareport. (2012). Mobile penetration rate. http://ghanareporters.com/tag/mobile-phones-in-ghana/ ITU 2011. Statistics of the International Telecommunication Union: Measuring the Information Society 2011, (p.166) http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publications/idi/index.html OLPC 2009 OLPC Project Ghana (2009). http://wiki.laptop.org/go/University_of_Education,_Winneba_-_Kumasi http://wiki.laptop.org/go/OLPC_Ghana, http://wiki.laptop.org/images/5/5c/BWL_Foundation.ppt.
http://wiki.laptop.org/go/OLPCorps_CUNY_Baruch_Ghana UNESCO (2011). Mobile Learning Week Report, December 2011 (p. 10) http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/ICT/pdf/UNESCO%20MLW%20report%20final%20 19jan.pdf
Athabasca University / College of the North Atlantic-Qatar
PO Box 24449, Doha, Qatar robpower@hotmail.com
+974-5513-3561 ABSTRACT Qatar presents a unique opportunity to explore potential mLearning applications in a theoretical context. The geographically small country in the Arabian Gulf has nearly ubiquitous mobile and wireless network coverage. The penetration of devices such as smartphones is also incredibly high, including amongst students. And those students have expressed an overwhelming desire to integrate their mobile devices into their learning. With its virtual absence of infrastructural barriers, Qatar offers the potential to focus research on how mobile technologies can fulfill the promise of increasing student engagement by creating novel situated learning experiences. QR Cache was developed to provide an exemplar of mobile reusable learning objects (RLOs). In the pilot phase, RLOs accessed by scanning Quick Response (QR) codes were developed to teach English computer terminology. Feedback was solicited from participating students and instructors to demonstrate the desirability of using such RLOs in combination with learners’ own mobile devices. The study also draws upon Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) (Moore, 1989, 1991) and Koole’s (2009) FRAME model to provide theoretical grounding for both RLO and instructional design decisions. Early results show increased engagement, and reduced transactional distance. They also indicate that the RLOs show a strong convergence of the activity types delineated by the FRAME model.
Author Keywords FRAME, mobile learning, Qatar, QR Codes, reusable learning objects, situated learning, Transactional Distance Theory, INTRODUCTION The QR Cache project was developed as a response to stakeholder needs at College of the North Atlantic-Qatar (CNA-Q) and in the State of Qatar. Learners have expressed a desire to see more integration of their own mobile devices (Warraich & Dahlstrom, 2012). CNA-Q has expressed a desire to promote blended learning (CNA-Q, 2011). Employers have expressed a desire to deliver just-in-time, situated learning for both technical and workplace English training. The current infrastructural context allows research to focus on pedagogical elements, as opposed to technical barriers (MacLeod, 2011; Metodieava, 2012; Nagy, 2012; Warraich & Dahlstrom, 2012). The QR Cache project uses a DesignBased Research (DBR) approach to explore the iterative development of mobile RLOs to meet stakeholder needs. TDT (Moore, 1989, 1991) and Koole’s (2009) FRAME model are used to guide the RLO design process, and to evaluate their pedagogical effectiveness.
The first phase involved the development of a set of mobile RLOs to be used by English Foreign Language (EFL) students enrolled in CNA-Q’s Technical Preparatory Program (TPP). The RLOs were accessed by scanning Quick Response (QR) codes, and were used to learn English computer hardware terminology. Participants have shown a positive response to the situated strategy. It is hoped that future iterations will lead to increased adoption of mobile RLOs by college instructors and in the Qatari workplace, as well as to the development of a comprehensive mLearning strategy at CNA-Q. It is also hoped that future iterations will lead to an increased understanding of how mobile RLOs can improve student engagement and learning by reducing transactional distance and increasing activity between students, content, their peers, and technology itself. Lessons learned from this, and future iterations of the QR Cache project will be used to help develop a practical mobile RLO design checklist, grounded in applicable learning theory, that can guide instructors in the development of effective mLearning activities and resources.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS The specific research questions explored in the first phase of the QR Cache project are:
How do learners respond to the use of mobile RLOs, accessed by scanning QR codes, to learn English computer terminology and concepts? b.
Do learners experience any difficulties when accessing the RLOs? Do learners enjoy using such mobile RLOs?
Would learners like to use such RLOs more often? Does the integration of the mobile RLOs, accessed by scanning QR codes, reflect the principles and benefits of effective mLearning design?
Do the RLOs help to reduce transactional distance between learners and content, learners and other
learners, or learners and teachers (Moore, 1989, 1991)?
Do the RLOs create optimal interaction between individuals, technology, and social elements, as
outlined by the FRAME model (Koole, 2009)?
LITERATURE REVIEW
The QR Cache research project is grounded by work that has contributed to an understanding of how learners interact in
technology-mediated learning situations (Moore, 1989, 1991), how multimedia elements impact teaching and learning
Moore’s Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) (1989, 1991) has been central in much of distance education and mLearning research. TDT views learning as an attempt to reduce physical and mental distance between the learner and the instructor, the content, and other learners. Koole’s FRAME model (2009) builds upon TDT, as well as Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development, in an mLearning context (p. 37). It presents a framework for designing and evaluating mLearning by maximizing key elements, and by reducing the gap between “what the learner is currently able to do and what she could potentially do with assistance from more advanced peers (p. 37)”. The reduction of transactional distance through situated learning is a central aim of the QR Cache research project. Koole’s FRAME model is used to examine how effectively the RLOs create such a learning scenario (p. 41).
In light of understandings of TDT and media effectiveness, recent work has focused on providing practical advice for
instructional design using mobile technology
Research Methodology For the first phase, the mobile RLOs were used to replace workbook-based learning for a computer hardware components unit in the TPP Introduction to Computers course. A primer lesson was integrated to teach students about QR codes, and provide them with an opportunity to explore the QR code scanning capabilities of their mobile devices. When necessary, instructors and students worked together to locate and install QR code scanning applications. The next two class sessions were used to explore samples of computer hardware components to which QR codes had been mounted. Students were responsible for learning the English terminology and basic functions of the devices.
Upon completion of the in-class activities, participating students were invited to complete on online questionnaire about their learning experiences using the QR codes and their own mobile devices. The questionnaires consisted of a combination of fixed and open-response items (Cohen et al., 2011, p.382) covering such themes as ease of access, the look and feel of the RLOs, levels of interaction with their peers and instructor, and overall impressions. A similar questionnaire was prepared for participating instructors to provide feedback on the learning activities and RLO designs. Responses to fixed and open-response questionnaire items were coded to reflect the research issues (p. 559-563). These were analyzed for the identification of major themes related to student and instructor perceptions, and evidence of effects upon transactional distance and the types of activities that form the domains of the FRAME model. RESULTS A total of seven students and two instructors completed questionnaires during the first phase. Responses to demographic questions about mobile device ownership were consistent with previously reported figures for CNA-Q, Education City, and the State of Qatar (MacLeod, 2011; Metodieava, 2012; Nagy, 2012; Warraich & Dahlstrom, 2012). All of the students owned smartphones. Four students reported owning two devices, and one student reported owning three (or more). Only two students had a QR code scanning app installed on their devices prior to the study. The remaining respondents were able to download a free app without any reported difficulty. Four students had previously scanned QR codes to access websites, while only one reported previously accessing text-based content, and one reported previously using a QR code to automatically dial a phone number.
All of the students indicated that scanning the QR codes was either easy or very easy and that the RLOs loaded quickly on their devices. Only one student reported that an RLO did not load properly. All of the students responded that it was easy to view the text and images, and the RLOs were easy to navigate. Six students indicated that it was either easy or moderately easy to understand the content, and to complete the “Test Your Knowledge” feedback questions at the end of each RLO. One student indicated that the RLOs contained too much information, and that the “Test Your Knowledge” activities were difficult to complete.
With respect to interaction with technology, content, peers and instructors, six out of seven student respondents indicated that they shared their mobile devices with another classmate while participating in the RLO activities. Five students and both teachers indicated that they discussed the mobile RLOs during the class activities, and four students indicated that they engaged in discussions of the “Test Your Knowledge” activities. All seven students indicated that they viewed the RLOs more than once, and five indicated that they showed the RLOs to friends outside of the class. Students and teachers generally indicated that they found the use of the RLOs, and their own mobile devices, appealing. Five of the seven students responded that they found these types of learning activities appealing, while one reported a neutral opinion, and one indicated that they found it somewhat unappealing. Only two of the seven students reported having ever used a mobile device for formal learning before, but all of the respondents indicated that they would like to do so again either at school or while on the job. When asked what they liked about using QR code scanners and their own mobile devices to access RLOs, students commented on the speed and ease of accessing the learning materials. As one student commented, “it’s very easy to scan and find the page that you want.” DISCUSSION The results of the first iteration of the QR Cache project show trends in mobile device ownership and the desire to use mobile devices in formal and informal learning similar to those previously reported in Qatar (MacLeod, 2011; Metodieava, 2012; Nagy, 2012; Warraich & Dahlstrom, 2012). Students and teachers reported enjoying learning with their mobile devices, and found the RLOs easy to access and use. Students indicated that they would like to use their mobile devices for learning more often. These results provide a degree of justification to pursue further investigations into integrating mLearning strategies at CNA-Q. But a stronger justification can be provided by grounding these findings in learning theories that explain how the mobile RLO approach creates an effective learning experience. TDT (Moore, 1989, 1991) and the FRAME model (Koole, 2009) provide useful and complimentary lenses for examining the effectiveness of the QR Cache RLOs. Student and teacher responses show a reduction in transactional distance between learners and the content. The content is easy to access and re-access, and it is situated so that it is easier for learners to contextualize the topics. Learner-learner and learner-teacher transactional distance also appear to have been reduced. Data indicate that students interacted with each other and their instructors while participating in the learning activities. The results also indicate that the RLOs generated appropriate activity across the domains of the FRAME model. Student and teacher survey responses indicate a high degree of device usability. They also show that learners are actively engaged in social interaction during the learning activities, and that the use of their mobile devices facilitated that interaction by creating a shared situated learning experience, and by generating both formal and informal social discussion. Beyond creating an enjoyable and easily accessible learning experience, TDT and the FRAME model illustrate how the use of the mobile RLOs positively affect the learning that is taking place.
There are limitations which must be considered when interpreting the findings of this research (Cohen et al., 2011). The online questionnaire was the only method of soliciting feedback used in the first phase. The survey schedule would benefit from an in-depth piloting and refinement phase. The addition of either one-on-one or focus group interviews would provide further opportunity to solicit qualitative feedback, and to triangulate the findings with respect to learner perceptions (pp. 382, 412-417). Data on student achievement on two standardized assessment instruments was collected during the first phase, for comparison with a control class of learners who did not use the mobile RLOs. While all learners demonstrated mastery of the required competencies, the sample size was too small to obtain confidence in the results of statistical analyses of the achievement data (p. 144). The refinement of the online questionnaire and development of interview scripts could be carried out before the implementation of a second DBR phase. A second DBR iteration of the QR Cache project would greatly benefit from their integration, as well as from the statistical analysis of standardized assessment results across a larger sample of the student population.
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